Research Methods Flashcards
independent variable
The variable which changes or is manipulated
dependant variable
The variable that is measured to see the effect of the iv
operationalising
To be specific and clear when defining the independent and dependant variable in an experiment, to make it easier to measure
lab experiment
An experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment
the researcher manipulated the independent variable and measures the effect on the dependant variable
field experiment
Takes place in a natural environment such as an office or a school
the researcher manipulates the independent variable and measures the effect on the dependant variable
natural experiment
The researcher takes advantage of a naturally occurring IV (event)
strengths of a lab experiment
- High level over extraneous variables eg. Light. Cause and effect can be established which increases internal validity
- High in reliability as the experiment can be easily repeated in the same conditions to check for consistent results
What are weaknesses of a lab experiment ?
- lacks ecological validly as its carried our in an artificial setting. It is difficult to generalise the finding beyond the settings of the study, lowering its external validity.
- prone to demand characteristics where the participants behaviour changes according to clues given off by the researcher, reducing the internal validity
Strengths of a field experiment ?
- Less prone to demand characteristics. People might not know they are ring watched so are less likely to guess clues given off by the researcher and change their natural behaviour, increasing the internal validity
- high ecological validity as its based in a Real life setting therefore its easier to generalise the finding beyond the setting of the study, increasing the external validity
Weaknesses of a field experiment ?
- low in reliability as the environment is natural. It is difficult to repeat it with exactly the same conditions to check for consistent results
- could create an ethical issue with lack of informed consent as people may not be aware they are being studied. If they become aware of this they may become upset and wish to withdraw their data from the research
Strengths of a natural experiment ?
- Provides opportunities for research that may not be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons
- high ecological validity as the natural experiments are often base in a real life setting. It’s easier to generalise the findings beyond the setting increasing the external validity
Weaknesses of a natural experiment ?
- Naturally occurring event may only happen very rarely which limits the opportunities for research
- low control ver extraneous variables as natural experiment take place in a natural environment. It is difficult to establish cause and effect between the IV and DV lowering the internal validity
independent group design
Participants take part in one condition only. Each condition has a different group of participants
Conducted
- Participants are recruited
- They are split into equal sized groups
- A different group is allocated each condition
advantages of an independent group design experiment ?
- No order effects because participants only take part in one condition so they wont get fatigued, bored or better at the task
dis-advantages of an independent group design experiment ?
- individual differences may affect the DV as there are separate groups of participants in each condition.
- more participants are needed as two different groups are required for different conditions
repeated measures design
All participants take part in all/both conditions of the experiment
Conducted
- participants complet one condition
- after a specific time lapse they will repeat the other condition
- the task should be different but matched on difficulty/measuring the same thing
advantages of a repeated measure design in an experiment ?
- Requires fewer participants
- same participants take part in all conditions. The researcher can be more sure that any changes in the DV are due to the IV and not any other variable
dis-advantages of a repeated measure design in an experiment ?
- order effects may occur when participants take part in more than one condition. They may perform worse in the second activity from being tried (reduces internal validity)
- increase chances of demand characteristics as participants take part in all conditions and may pick up clues given off by the researcher
matched pairs design
Participants are matched on important characteristic and then each pair is randomly allocated across each condition
Conducted
- choose a variable to match the participants on
- test the ppt on this variable before the study
- match the ppts with the same scores
- randomly allocate each member of the pair to one condition
advantages of matched pairs design in an experiment ?
- reduces individual differences between participants researcher can be sure that changes in the dv are due to the iv and not other variables
- no order affects because ppts only take part in one condition so they wont get bored or fatigued
dis-advantages of matched pairs design in an experiment ?
- very time consuming to match up and find similar ppts. You would need a very large pool of people
- individual differences could not be fully eliminated you could question validity
How do you find the mean of a set of numbers ?
Add all of them together and divide them by the amount of numbers added together
How do you find the mode of a set of numbers ?
It is the most common number
How do you find the range of a set of numbers ?
Subtract the smallest number from the largest number
How do you find the median of a set of numbers ?
It is the middle value
investigator effects
When the researchers behaviours/ characteristics either consciously or unconsciously influences the outcome of the research.
Eg. the researchers gender or tone of voice may influence how the ppt responds
How can investigator effects be controlled ?
- train experimenters to use neutral tone of voice
- ensure the researcher is the same gender as participants
- use standardised instructions for all participants
demand characteristics
Any clues given off by the researcher could lead to the ppts changing their natural behaviour choosing to either help or hinder the researcher
Reduces internal validity
How can we controll demand characteristics ?
Getting another researcher who does not know the aims to carry out the experiment so they don’t give off any clues to influence to participant
bias
When the researcher is designing the resources/ experiment or collecting results
What methods can we use to control bias in research ?
Randomisation - if they have to memorize a list of words randomly generate them or the order of conditions
Standardisation - using the same formalised instructions and procedures for all ppt (standardiesed instructions)
Researchers are trained
How to control individual differences ?
Random allocation
Write the names on a paper
Put it in a hat
Randomly pick out (put half in condition 1 and the other in condition 2)
How can we control order effects ?
Counterbalancing using the ABBA method
- Half the ppts complete condition A then B
- The other half complete condition B then A
- Order effects are balanced
Deception
When participants are not told the true Aim of the study deliberately to prevent participants from showing demand characteristics
Ppts should be given
A debrief (a post research interview )
Right to with draw
informed consent
Where ppts give permission to take part in the study after being informed of the true aims of the research
Children under 16 cannot give their consent
Three way to gain consent
Presumptive consent - this is gaining consent from a similar set of ppts who won’t actually be doing the study.
Prior informed consent - getting general consent from ppts of things that ‘could’ happen.
Parental consent - when ppts are too young to give consent this is gained from parents. (under 16)
protection of participants
Ppts should be protected psychologically and physically
Right to withdraw
Debrief
confidentiality
Ensuring ppts details and data remain anonymous so they cannot be identifies in the research
Ppts should be allowed to remain anonymous
Controlled observation
The conditions are manipulated by the researcher. It may be carried out in a laboratory eg. Ainsworth
strengths of a controlled observation ?
High in reliability - environment is controlled and standardised
can be easily checked for consistent results -gain more respect
disadvantages of a controlled observation ?
Low in ecological validity - artificial setting
Prone to demand characteristics - Ppts more likely to know they are being watched
neutralistic observation ?
Watching natural behaviour in a natural environment where the target behaviour would normally occur. No intervention of manipulation of behaviour eg. Aggression in the playground
advantages of a neutralistic observation ?
Less prone to demand characteristics - Ppts dont know they are being watched
High ecological validity - natural environment
dis-advantages of a neutralistic observation ?
Low in reliability - unable to repeat the observation for consistent results)
Ethical issues - lack on informed consent)
overt observation
Ppts are aware their behaviour is being observed, so will be aware of the purpose of the research and the observer is clearly visible to the ppt
advantages of an overt observation ?
Ethically appropriate they know they are being watched and can give consent for their data to be used
dis-advantages of an overt observation ?
Prone to demand characteristic - reduces internal validity)
covert observation
Ppts are not aware they are being observed
It can be done with an observer being hidden, use of secret cameras or from behind a two way mirror
advantages of a covert observation ?
Less prone to demand characteristics (increases internal validity)
dis-advantages of a covert observation ?
Prone to ethical issues - research may not be approved to be used by ppt
participant observation
The researcher is involved with the group
Data is collected while being a part of a group
advantages of a participant observation ?
Researcher can gain in depth understanding of the groups behaviour
dis-advantages of a participant observation ?
Increase chance of researcher bias. The researchers own behaviours and thoughts may impact the observation lowering the internal validity
non-participant observation
The researcher is not involved with the group
Data s collected form a distance eg. A camera
advantages of a non-participant design ?
Reduced chance of the researcher being bias (increases internal validity)
dis-advantages of a non-participant design ?
Observer is less likely to gain an in depth understanding of the groups bahaviour (lowers internal validity)
What are questionnaires ?
Asking a large sample of people for information on a specific topic
What is qualitative data ?
Expressed in words
What is quantitative data ?
Data that is expressed numerically
What is primary data ?
Gathered directly form the participants themselves. Specific to the aim of the study
What is secondary data ?
Previously been collected by a third part. Not specifically for the aim of the study
Reliability
Refers to the ability to repeat a study in similar conditions to gain consistent results
Types of experimental design
Independent group
Matched pairs
Repeated measures
Ethical issues
Deception
informed consent
Protection from harm
Confidentiality
What is involved in a self report
Ppts give info to the researcher to provide detail on thoughts/behaviour/feelings
Ppts respond to questions ina question are or interview
One or close questions or structure or instructed interview
Questionnaire
Form part of surveys which involve asking a large number of people for info on a certain topic
Large sample to generalise results
Strength of qeustionairs
They can tackle sensitive issues
Data can remain anonymous
Ppts more likely to be honest
Increase internal validity
Quick
Large quantity in short amount of time
Lots of data
Weekness of questionnaires
Social desirability bias
People may want to present themselves in the best possible light
Lie
Lowers internal validity
Interviews
A method for asking questions
Face to face nature or on the phone
Two type unstructured and structured
Good for gathering qualities data
Strength of interviews
Ppts can ask for clarification if they don’t underhand something which increases internal validity
Weekness of interviews
Time consuming
Prone to investigation effects
Researcher could influence ppt responses
Lowers internal validity
Structured interview
Questions are pre set
Less likely to deviate from a topic
All interviewees asked the same question in same order
Cannot ask any extra questions
Strength + weekness of a structured interview
Reliable and easily to compare responses to generate trends
Less in depth info
Instructured interview
Topic area for discussion
Different question diff people
Questions based off responses
More likely to be open questions
Strength + weakness instructed interview
More depth
Hard to identify patterns+ trends and difficult to replicate
What does correlation all analysis show
A relationship between variables (co variable 1 and co variable 2)
No iv and do so no manipulation of variables by the researcher
Sampling techniques
Random
Systematic
Stratified opportunity
Random sampling
Strength + weakness
Every person in the target population has an = chance of being selected
How?
Pick names out a hat
Strength
Very fair - less chance of a bias sample
Weakness
Time consuming - takes time getting all the ppt and not guaranteed that Ppts really want to take part
Systematic sampling
Strength + weakness
A system is applied to select Ppts
How?
Create a sampling brain to organize the target population eg. Arrange in alphabetical order
Decide on the system eg every 5th and choose the people until the sample is full
Strength
Avoids researcher bias - researcher has no influence
Weakness
Not representative not everyone has an = chance of being picked so u cannot generalise to target population
Stratified sample
Strength + weakness
Sample reflects the proportions of certain sub groups in the target population eg. 70% of the target population is female so 70% the sample will be female
How?
Identify subgroups
Calculate how many w=you would need of each proportion
Choose the ppt with random sampling
Weekness
Time consuming
Most representative - reflective of target population and can be generalised
Opportunity sample
Strength + weakness
Being there at that moment in time eg. Waiting for ppt in a canteen and asking the first 30 who walk past to participate
How?
Go somewhere where you will have access to the population you want to study
Strength
Very quick - convinient and quick
May not be representative - may have similar personalities and its difficult to generalise
Case study
Strength + weekness
In depth study conducted in a group or one person. Over a long period of time and involve other techniques such as interviews and observations or a combination of them which produce in depth qualities data
Gathering data from the individual being strokes but also from the family friends of the individual also
Strength
In depth insight to unusual forms of behaviour that would otherwise be difficult to manipulate in an experimental setting
Weekness
Low population validity - only conducted on one person or small group so difficult to generalise findings
Inaccuracy and bias from family members or the person themselves
Primary data
Gathered directly from the participants and is specific to the aim of the study eg. Questionnaire
Secondary data
Previously collected from a third party not specifically for the aims of the study and then used by the researcher
Sample
Small group of people taken by the researcher to be used in an experiment/investigation
