Research Methods Flashcards
Describe what an experiment is.
experiments attempt to establish a cause and effect between the IV (what is manipulated) and the DV (what is measured). When extraneous variables (what could affect the DV) are uncontrolled they become confounding variables.
EXAMPLES -
Asch: variable changes (IV) and conformity (DV)
Peterson and Peterson: Interval task (IV) and memory (DV)
Loftus and Palmer: Critical question (IV) and speed estimate (DV)
Describe a lab experiment
Where the IV is manipulated and the DV is measured under controlled conditions to prevent confounding variables. Usually participants are usually aware they they are taking part in a study.
Evaluate Lab experiments
(+) High control over EVs increase internal validity which means we can asses the effects of the IV on the DV more accurately.
COUNTERPOINT (-) higher control could mean that ecological validity is lower due to the artificiality of the research, which means that it is harder to generalise findings.
(+) High control over lab experiments means that procedures are generally more replicable, this means that experiments can be repeated and therefore the reliability of findings can be checked.
What is a field experiment?
This is where a researcher manipulates the IV and measures a DV in natural conditions. The ‘field’ is considered any location that is not a laboratory, therefore sometimes PPs are not aware that they are in a study.
Evaluate field experiments.
(+) Natural settings means the ecological validity of the research increases, therefore behaviour exhibited in the experiments is more likely to reflect how individuals would behave in real life.
(-) Because experiments are not conducted in a lab setting, this often means that there is low control over extraneous variables, this therefore lowers the internal validity of the study as we cannot be certain that it is the effect of the IV on the DV, instead extraneous variables may be confounding the results.
What is a natural experiment?
Researcher measure effect of IV on DV however they have no control over the IV and cannot change/manipulate it. For example a natural disaster.
Evaluate natural experiments.
(+) Studying real life issues and event means high levels of external validity, specifically ecological validity meaning they will have real world application.
(+) Naturally occurring IVs mean things that can be studied that would
otherwise be unethical to research.
COUNTERPOINT - However there are ethical issues that arise in these experiments as participants who are not aware they are taking part in a psychological experiments cannot give informed consent, meaning a full debrief afterwards is required.
(-) A naturally occurring event can be rare, this reduces the opportunities for research and limits how much findings can be applied to real life.
(-) Participants may not be able to be randomly allocated to experimental conditions if an independent groups design is used. For examples in the study of Romanian orphans, the IV was whether the kids were adopted early or late however there were lots of differences between these groups.
What is a covert observation?
where participants are not aware they are being observed.
What is an overt observation?
where participants are aware they are being observed.
evaluate covert observations.
(+) Investigator effects are unlikely as they are not aware they are being observed, meaning that participants’ behaviour will be genuine.
(-) Less ethical as participants are not aware they are taking part and cannot give fully informed consent.
What is a participant observation?
This is when the observer also takes part in the activity being observed
What us a non-participant observation?
This is when the observer does not take part in the activity being observed, instead they watch from a distance
Evaluate participant observations
(+) closer proximity to participants provides verstehen, a real and empathic insight into one’s subject. It also adds some of the advantages of interviews (especially group interviews) as the researcher can probe people for explanations or further information.
(-) people are likely to change their behaviour and so what is being observed might be very different from what would have occurred without the researcher being present
Evaluate non-participant observations
(-) Hawthorne Effect - people are likely to change their behaviour because they are aware that they are being observed, can be overcome with a covert observation
(+ )allows for a more objective view of what is occurring.
What is a controlled observation?
observation takes place in a lab-style setting
What is an uncontrolled observation?
observation takes place in an unaltered setting in which the observer does not interfere in any way.
Evaluate a controlled observation
(+) high control means replicability is possible as the researcher is in control of variables and therefore can repeat the method as they wish
(-) but it also means lower ecological validity as the researcher records behaviours in an artificial (manipulated) environment, with potential outside interference from the researcher.
Describe how observers can gather data from observations
Time Sampling: where an observer records behaviour at prescribed intervals
Event Sampling: where an observer records the number of times that the target behaviour occurs.
Evaluate the ways in which observers can gather data from observations
Time sampling methods allow for a better use of time since fewer observations are made. However, not every behaviour of relevance to
the investigation will be counted if it occurs in between the time frames allocated.
Event sampling means that every behaviour of interest to the researcher will be counted. However, some behaviours could be missed
if there is too much happening at the same time, resulting in some not being coded
Self report techniques - what is a questionnaire?
Written surveys that measure attitudes or opinions on something. They can be
made up of closed ( predetermined responses for respondents to choose from) and/or open ( no predetermined responses so respondents can offer as much detail as they want) questions.
Self report techniques - what is an interview
Questions that are verbally asked by an interviewer and answered to an interviewee. They generally use open questions and gather
qualitative data
Describe the different types of interviews
Structured: All interviewees are asked the same questions. There is no room for additional avenues to be explored. E.g. a formal job interview
Semi-Structured: There are some set questions prepared by the interviewer, but areas of interest can be followed up. E.g. a therapist session
Unstructured: The interviewer prepares one or two questions but the interview snowballs naturally. E.g. a radio interview
Evaluate questionnaires as a self report technique
(+) Closed questions are easy and quicker to analyse and can be analysed statistically. However, they do not generate in-depth
responses.
(-)Open questions generate in-depth data, but this is hard and timeconsuming to analyse.
(-) Gathering completed questionnaires can be time-consuming.
(-) Participants may want to appear socially desirable in responses.
(+)Better than interviews since they can be completed confidentially.
Evaluate interviews as a self report technique
(+) Qualitative data is gathered, so it is rich in detail and interviewees can offer elaboration in their answers, however, this makes it hard to
analyse.
(-) Participants may want to appear socially desirable in their responses.
(+) Better than questionnaires since interviewees can ask for questions to
be repeated or rephrased if they are stuck.
(+) Interviews can gather information about body language, whereas questionnaires cannot.
(-) Structured interviews are standardised (easily replicable), but other interviews will need to be conducted by a trained interviewe
What is meant by a correlation?
Aim to find a relationship between co-variables. The direction and strength of a correlation is indicated by a
correlation coefficient (between -1 and +1)
amd is displayed on a scatter graph.
Describe the types of correlations
Positive: Both co-variables travel in the same direction
Negative: Co-variables travel in the opposite direction
None: No relationship between the co-variables.
Evaluate the use of correlations
(+) Correlations provide valuable insight for future research if co variables are strongly related.
(+) Can be quick and economical to carry out, no need for controlled environment or control over variables as secondary data is used.
(+) Can be used when a lab experiment would be unethical. Secondary data can be used which alleviates the concern over informed consent.
(-) It is not possible to establish a cause and effect with correlations, can tell us the how and not the why variables are related.
(-) Correlations only identify linear relationships and not curvilinear.
What is content analysis?
Studying people indirectly. Qualitative data in a range of formats can be used, such as video or audio recordings or written responses.
Researchers must familiarise themselves with data before conducting any analysis so that they are confident in their coding system.
Outline the purpose and the method of a case study
Purpose: to provide a detailed analysis of an individual, establishment, or real-life event.
Method: A case study can use experimental or non-experimental methods to collect data and are often used where there is a rare behaviour being investigated.
what is coding?
The researcher develops categories for the data to be classified. These example categories help convert qualitative material into quantitative data.
Thematic analysis helps identify recurring themes in qualitative data and will produce further qualitative data, but this will be much more refined.
Content analysis requires codes to be identified before the data is reviewed, but thematic analysis involves themes emerging from the data
Evaluate the use of case studies
(-) By only studying one individual, an isolated event or a small group of people it is very difficult to generalise any findings to the wider
population.
(-) The researcher’s own subjectivity may pose a problem. A major limitation is that research bias and subjectivity can interfere with the
validity of the findings/conclusions.
(+) Case studies offer the opportunity to unveil rich, detailed information
about a situation.
(+) Case studies can be used in circumstances which would not be ethical to examine experimentally. For example, the case study of Genie (Rymer, 1993)
Evaluate content/thematic analysis
(-) Content analysis can produce subjective findings. E.g. Cultural differences may contribute to inconsistent interpretation of behaviour.
(+) Content analysis and Thematic analysis have high ecological validity. They base conclusions on observations of real behaviour and communications.
(+) Content Analysis is easier to assess reliability because other researchers can use the coding system to ensure findings are consistent
Describe what is meant by a target population, a sample and a sampling technique
Target population: the people a sample is supposed to represent
Sample: a group used in research that represents a target population
Sampling technique: a method used for gathering the sample
What is meant by systematic sampling
This is where a predetermined system is used to select participants, every nth person is chosen.
What is meant by systematic sampling
This is where a predetermined system is used to select participants, every nth person is chosen.
Evaluate systematic sampling
(+) It is not affected by researcher bias/choice of participants
(-) The sample may be unrepresentative if every Nth person has similar traits, such as being right-handed
Describe random sampling
Every person in the target population has a chance of being in the sample.
E.g. all names of the target population are entered into a computer system, and it generates a list of names who will become the sample.
Evaluate random sampling
(+) There is no bias in the selection of the sample
(-) People could say no to taking part so it could be time-consuming
(-) The sample generated could be unrepresentative (E.g. all male)
Describe volunteer sampling
Participants self-select to take part in a study by either volunteering when asked or by responding to an advert. E.g. responding to a poster in a café
Evaluate volunteer sampling
(+) It is an easier and quicker method than random or stratified sampling
(-) The sample may not be representative. E.g. only unemployed people could volunteer, or people who are interested in psychology
Describe opportunity sampling
The sample consists of people from the target population who are available. E.g. the researcher approaches people and asks them to take part in a study
Evaluate opportunity sampling
(+) It is easier than methods such as random or stratified sampling
(-) The sample may not be representative of the target population
(-) There could be researcher bias in who is approached
Describe stratified sampling
Subgroups within a population are identified and participants are obtained from each
stratum in proportion to the target population
Evaluate stratified sampling
(+)It is not affected by researcher bias, and the sample is likely to be representative
(-)Ensuring that the subgroups/strata in the target population are all accurately
identified is a difficult and time-consuming task.
Describe independent measures/groupds design
Uses two separate groups of participants (each person only takes part in one condition).
Evaluate independent groups design
(-) Time-consuming since twice the number of participants need to be gathered, compared to repeated measures. As well as this each participant produces one result only. This means this experimental design is less economical as it means more time/money is spent of recruiting participants.
(-) As individuals only partake in one condition of the experiment, the researcher may find differences in the DV between the conditions, however this could be due to participant variables and not the effects of the IV which therefore reduces the validity of the study. (+) however the use of random allocation can deal with this issue as it attempts to evenly distribute participant characteristics across conditions using random techniques.
(+) Order effects are avoided since participants only take part in one condition of the study
Describe the repeated measures design
Uses one group of participants, who take part in all conditions of a study. Counter balancing can be used to reduce order effects.
Evaluate repeated measures design
(+) Fewer participants are required therefore the impact of participant variables is minimised.
(-) Each participant offers more than one piece of data, so any withdrawals can result in loss of data.
(-) Demand characteristics are likely as participants experience all conditions so may work out the aim of the study.
(-) Repeated use of participants can lead to order effects (E.g. tiredness, boredom, rehearsal) which can deteriorate the performance on the second task or improve in cases where the task is skill-based. Order effects act as a confounding variable.
Describe matched pairs design
Participants are matched on relevant traits before being randomly allocated to conditions.
Evaluate the matched pairs design
(+) Participants are matched on relevant traits therefore participant variables are minimised.
(-) Time-consuming since twice the number of participants need to be gathered, compared to repeated measures.
(+) Order effects are avoided since participants only take part in one condition of the study.
(-) It is a time-consuming and difficult process to match participants on relevant traits
Describe what is meant by a pilot study
Pilot studies are small-scale prototypes of a
study. They are carried out before the full research to find out if there are any problems
A pilot study uses a sample that (although
smaller) is representative of the target
population that will be used in the main
research.
The goal is to improve the validity of the
research
What is the goal of having control in research? Discuss situational variables, participant variables and researcher variables.
To identify and control extraneous variables, so they do not become confounding variables.
(Situational variables) – variables connected with the research situation. For example, the temperature, time of day, lighting, materials, etc.
(Participant variables) – minimizing differences between participants
(Researcher variables) – factors such as researcher behaviour, appearance, or gender could affect participant responses, so should be made consistent throughout the experiment.
Describe what is meant by standardisation
The process in which all situational variables of a procedure used in research are kept the same. Standardisation also enables research to be replicated.
(Situational variables) – variables connected with the research situation. For example, the temperature, time of day, lighting, materials, etc.
Define demand characteristics
They occur when participants try to make sense of the research. They may change their behaviour to support or disrupt an investigation.
They are controlled by using a single-blind technique, where participants are unaware of the IV, or which condition they are taking part in
Define investigator effects
Where a researcher (consciously or unconsciously) acts in a way to support
their prediction. E.g. interpreting results/behaviours with bias.
The investigator’s age, gender, attractiveness (and other traits) can affect participant behaviour.
This can be controlled by using a double-blind technique where neither the participant nor researcher knows the identity of the IV or experimental
groups.
Describe what is meant by random allocation
Participants should be randomly allocated to groups to reduce participant variables (e.g. individual differences).
E.g. participant names are placed into a computer name generator. The 1st
name generated is placed in group 1, and the 2nd is placed in group 2. This repeats until everyone is assigned to a group.
What is counterbalancing (ABBA)?
Used to combat the problem of order effects with repeated measures design.
The sample is split in half with one half completing the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order. Any order effects should be balanced out by the opposing half of the participants.
What is randomisation?
This is when all aspects of the research are dictated by chance and not by the researcher, for example, the order of words in a list
what is a peer review and what are the aims?
WHAT IS IT?
An independent assessment process that takes place before a research study is published. Undertaken by other experts in the same field of psychology, anonymously.
WHAT DOES IT AIM TO DO?
- To provide recommendations about whether research should be published in the public domain or not, or whether it needs revision.
- To check the validity and originality of the research.
- To assess the appropriateness of the procedure and methodology.
- To judge the significance of the research in the wider context of human behaviour.
-To inform the allocation of future research funding
Evaluate peer review
(-) Limited funding for new research creates competition and could breed jealousy amongst researchers.
(-) It is sometimes difficult to find a suitable peer, especially if conducting new or groundbreaking research.
(+)The process helps to prevent any substandard research from entering the mainstream, which protects the reputation of psychology.
(+) Using peers means there is less opportunity for plagiarised work or duplications of research to be published.
What is meant by “Implications for the economy”?
The economy is concerned with how members of society produce, share, and consume goods and services. Implications refer to the ability to interpret findings in terms of their value or
effect on society.
Provide examples of research that has had positive implications for the economy
(+) Bowlby’s attachment research influenced limited free daycare for children under 3 years old. This will cost the government but allow the workforce to return to work rather than stay home.
(+) The cognitive interview has been successful at improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimonies. This means that there is a greater chance of the police prosecuting the right criminal from the offset. These techniques
can reduce wasted money on wrongful arrests, questioning and court hearings, and saving the criminal justice system money.
(+) The development of treatments for disorders, such as OCD will restore the quality of life for the sufferer. This will impact their ability to work, meaning less time off work due to ill health and/or less reliance on government-funded incapacity benefits. Likewise, the NHS will save money if treatments are successful as fewer incidents of relapse,
requiring medical attention is likely to occur.
What is deception and how can you control it?
When information is deliberately withheld from participants or they are knowingly misled. E.g. using confederates or lying about the aims.
Deception means participants can’t give informed consent.
Control: At the end of the study, the participants should be fully debriefed
and told the true aim of the research
What is meant by ethical guidelines and issues
Ethical issues: considerations that researchers need to consider before, during, and after the research is conducted
Ethical Guidelines: The BPS code of ethics are guidelines that researchers need to consider when undertaking psychological research, such as the right to withdraw and informed consent
What is informed consent and how can you control it?
When participants are told the real aims and expected outcomes of a study.
Control: Use alternatives to informed consent, such as:
• Presumptive consent: if others state they would take part in the research it can be presumed that future participants would do the same.
• Prior general consent: use participants who have been in previous studies where they were deceived. This, in effect, means that they will
have given consent for being deceived
What is protection from harm and how is it controlled?
Participants should not experience any psychological or physiological harm during a study and should not change in any way.
E.g. they should not leave with lower self-esteem. They should not experience
pain, and they should not feel ridiculed or embarrassed.
Control: The researcher should remind participants of their right to withdraw
throughout and after the research and terminate the study if needed.
Note: if the level of harm is considered ‘typical’ of daily life, this is accepted.
Give examples of ways in which you can control ethical issues.
Right to withdraw: participants should be reminded of their right to withdraw themselves or their data from the research at any point.
Privacy: the right of individuals to decide how information about them will be communicated to others. Information should be confidential.
Debrief: all participants should be debriefed at the end of the study, including revealing the real aims of the study, checking on the welfare of participants, offering support, and answering questions about the study.
What is reliability?
a measure of consistency
What is Inter Observer Reliability?
when two or more observers observe and
record behaviour consistently. Their observations (or scores) are correlated. +0.8 or higher indicates reliability.
What is test-retest reliability?
the same people repeat a measure on different occasions. Results from both are correlated and +0.8 or above indicates
reliability.
What is validity?
a measure of accuracy
What is face validity?
when the test appears to measure what it says it measures, at face value
What is concurrent validity?
the performance of the test/tool is compared to a test that is already recognised and trusted within the same field.
How can improve the reliability of research?
Questionnaires: changing open to closed questions can minimise ambiguity.
Interview: Ensuring the same interviewer is conducting all interviews will help reduce researcher bias. If not, then training should be provided to limit the potential bias.
Experiments: researchers can increase control over extraneous variables.
Observations: operationalise the behavioural categories and ensure there is no overlap between categories.
How can you improve the validity of research?
Experiments: control groups are used to see the impact of an IV, and standardised instructions and procedures help improve validity. Singleblind and double-blind procedures are also used to improve validity.
Questionnaires: Researchers can include lie scales to check for consistency in responses. Two questions or items that are asking the same thing, but in opposite ways.
Observations: Covert observations can reduce bias and increase validity, as can using operationalised behavioural categories that do not overlap.
What is primary data?
Data collected for a specific reason and reported by the original researcher, or data that the participant reports directly to the researcher or is witnessed first-hand.
Evaluate the use of primary data
(+) Data is authentic since it is collected is designed to suit the aims of the research and, therefore, is fit for the purpose of the investigation.
(-) It can take a long time and effort to gather primary data.
What is secondary data?
Data collected by other researchers for a purpose other than the investigation in which it is currently being used. In other words, it is data which already exists. E.g. data from Government reports
Evaluate the use of secondary data
(+) Less time-consuming to gather since it already exists.
(-) It may not be for a purpose since it is being used for unintended purposes, and so very little of the data may be relevant to the aims of the new study
What is qualitative data
Non-numerical data. It is expressed in words, e.g. an interview transcript. Questions that gather qualitative data gather words. E.g. how is your mood today?
Evaluate the use use of qualitative data
(-) It is harder and more time consuming to analyse than quantitative data.
(+) The data is more insightful about human behaviour than quantitative
data.
(-) Analysis can be subjective (e.g. thematic analysis)
What is quantitative data?
Numerical data that can be statistically analysed, such as percentages. Questions that gather quantitative data gather numbers. E.g. How many hours do you sleep for?
Evaluate the use of quantitative data
(+) It is easier to analyse than qualitative data and statistical significance can be worked out.
(-) The data may lack the insight that qualitative data offers.
(+) Analysis is more objective than qualitative data analysis
what is an aim?
a statement that explains the purpose of a study or investigation
what is a hypothesis?
a testable prediction about the anticipated results of the study.
what is an alternative hypothesis?
suggests a potential relationship or difference between two key variables
what is an experimental hypothesis?
An experimental hypothesis predicts what change(s) will occur in the dependent variable when the independent variable is manipulated, it states that results are not due to chance.
What is a null hypothesis?
states no relationship or difference exists between the two variables being studied
what is a one tailed hypothesis
It predicts in which direction the change will take place. (i.e., greater, smaller, less, more)
what is a two tailed hypothesis?
predicts that there is a difference or relationship between two variables but does not specify the direction of this relationship.
What is a quasi experiment?
have an IV that is based on an existing difference between people. For example age or gender.
Evaluate quasi experiments
(+) Quasi experiments often carried out under controlled conditions so have a strength of being easily replicable.
(-) Cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions and so there may be confounding variables.
(-) cannot claim the IV has caused an observed change as it has not been changed by the researcher.
Define and evaluate the mean.
This is a measure of central tendency (average) which is calculated by adding all the values in a set of data and dividing by the number of values.
(+) Representative of the data as a whole as it includes all values.
(-) It is easily distorted by extreme values so may not accurately represent data.
Define and evaluate the median
The median is the middle value in a set of data when arranged from lowest to highest.
(+) Extreme scores do not affect it.
(-) Actual values of lower and higher numbers are ignored.
Define and evaluate the mode
the mode is the most frequently occurring value in a set of data
(+) When there are several modes it is less useful, this is also the case if there is not mode due to different scores.
(-) May be the only method to use if looking for the most “typical” value
Define and evaluate the range
The range is a measure of dispersion and is the difference between the highest and lowest values +1
(+) easy to calculate
(-) unrepresentative if there are extremes
Define and evaluate standard deviation
Standard deviation is a measure of dispersion that show how much scores (on average) deviate from the mean
(+) more precise than the range
(-) Distorted by extreme values
