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psychology paper 1 > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Outline Respect as an ethical requirement

A

Treating participants or animals in a humane, fair and unprejudiced way

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2
Q

Describe Confidentiality as an ethical requirement

A

The participants’ identity must be kept anonymous and data must be recorded as unidentifiable using pseudonyms

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3
Q

Describe Deception as an ethical requirement

A

Participants are misled or wrongly informed about the aims of the research. This includes: deliberate misleading (lying) and failure to disclose (omission) of full information about the study.

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4
Q

Describe Informed Consent as an ethical requirement

A

Permission must be obtained for participants to consent in the research study.
An adult (18+) can provide consent or parents/legal guardians of minors can also provide consent to allow their children to participate in a study

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5
Q

Describe the Right to Withdraw as an ethical guideline

A

Participants should be able to leave a study at any time if they feel uncomfortable.
They should also be allowed to withdraw their data and must be told at the start of the study that they have the right to withdraw.

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6
Q

Describe Debriefing as an ethical requirement

A

After the research is over, the researcher will explain the purpose, procedure and findings to the participant to minimise the impact of harm and distress.

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7
Q

Define ‘aim’

A

A statement of a study’s purpose

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8
Q

What is an independent variable?

A

A variable directly manipulated by the researcher (cause).

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9
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A

The variable which will be affected by the change in the IV (effect).

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10
Q

Define operationalised

A

Describing the process by which the variable is measured (units, scale or definitions).

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11
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

The hypothesis you assume to be true in your study. A prediction that there will be no relationship or no significant difference between the IV and DV

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12
Q

What is an alternative hypothesis?

A

The hypothesis which is accepted if the data proves the null hypothesis to be rejected. A prediction that there will be a relationship or a significant difference between the IV and DV.

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13
Q

What is a directional hypothesis?

A

A hypothesis which predicts the direction of the difference or relationship between the variables

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14
Q

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

A

A hypothesis which does not state the direction of the outcome for the variables being studied

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15
Q

What are confounding variables?

A

Variables which are not the IV and are shown to be influencing the DV

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16
Q

What are questionnaires?

A

A type of self-report data which is useful for surveying attitudes, beliefs and behaviours that can provide both quantitative and qualitative data

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17
Q

What are Closed Questions?

A

The participants are limited in their responses, for example ticking a box or choosing an option. Quantitative data which is easier to analyse is obtained however responses are in lesser depth and detail.

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18
Q

What are Open Questions?

A

The participants are invited to respond in any way, in their own words producing detailed qualitative data which is difficult to analyse.

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19
Q

What is a Structured Interview?

A

The interviewer has a pre-written set of questions which they do not deviate from; all participants are asked the same questions in the same order

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20
Q

What is an Unstructured Interview?

A

The interviewer may have a few general questions in mind but there are no set questions; there is instead flexibility to pick up on issues in the participant’s comments and for them to expand on their responses

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21
Q

What is a semi-structured interview?

A

The interview is between the two types described. It has a set of pre-determined questions but the respondent is free to expand on their responses. The interviewee is free to ask follow up questions as and when deemed necessary.

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22
Q

Strengths of questionnaires

A

+ Shows what people think/feel
+ Easily repeated
+ Respondents feel anonymous

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23
Q

Weakness of questionnaires

A
  • Social desirability bias
  • Possible biased sample
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24
Q

Strengths of open questions

A

+ Rich detail of response
+ Unexpected results

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25
Q

Weaknesses of open questions

A
  • Harder to draw conclusions
  • Interpretation is subjective
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26
Q

Strengths of using closed questions

A

+ Easy to analyse (quantitative)
+ Answers are more objective

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27
Q

Weaknesses of using closed questions

A
  • Pps cannot express feelings
  • Oversimplifies reality
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28
Q

Strengths of using a ranked scale

A

+ Objective
+ Produces quantitative data

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29
Q

Weaknesses of using a ranked scale

A
  • Social desirability bias
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30
Q

Describe random sampling

A
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31
Q

Strengths of random sampling

A
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32
Q

Weaknesses of random sampling

A
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33
Q

Describe systematic sampling

A
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34
Q

Strengths of systematic sampling

A
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35
Q

Weaknesses of systematic sampling

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36
Q

Describe stratified sampling

A
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37
Q

Strengths of stratified sampling

A
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38
Q

Weaknesses of stratified sampling

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39
Q

Describe opportunity sampling

A
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40
Q

Strengths of opportunity sampling

A
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41
Q

Weaknesses of opportunity sampling

A
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42
Q

Describe volunteer sampling

A
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43
Q

Strengths of volunteer sampling

A
44
Q

Weaknesses of volunteer sampling

A
45
Q

What are the 4 features of science

A
  1. Empiricism
  2. Objectivity
  3. Replicability
  4. Falsification
46
Q

Describe Empiricism

A

Information gained through direct observation or experiment

47
Q

Describe Objectivity

A

Observations and experiments should be unaffected by bias

48
Q

Describe Replicability

A

Research should be repeated and similar results should be obtained, which adds to the reliability of the study

49
Q

Describe Falsification

A

The theory is a collection of principles that explain observations and facts, which can be falsifiable

50
Q

What are the levels of measurement?

A
  1. Nominal
  2. Ordinal
  3. Interval
  4. Ratio
51
Q

Describe nominal data

A

Data is in separate categories (frequencies)

52
Q

Describe ordinal data

A

Data is ordered in some way (Interval and Ratio can be converted into ordinal)

53
Q

Describe interval data

A

Units of equal measurements are used (e.g. minutes, kilograms)

54
Q

Describe ratio data

A

The data has a true zero

55
Q

What is an extraneous variable?

A

Any variable other than the IV which can affect the DV if it is not controlled

56
Q

What is a participant variable?

A

An extraneous variable which is dispositional and personal to the participant, which can affect the study’s accuracy

57
Q

What is a situational variable?

A

An extraneous variable present in the environment of the study which affects participant performance

58
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

An extraneous variable that affects the results of the study so that the effect of the IV is not truly seen

59
Q

Describe repeated measures design

A

The same participants take part in each condition of the independent variable

60
Q

Strengths of repeated measures design

A

+ No individual differences
+ Fewer participants (economical benefit)

61
Q

Weaknesses of repeated measures design

A
  • Order effects (practice effects or fatigue effects)
  • Increased chance of demand characteristics
62
Q

Describe independent groups design

A

There are different participants in each condition of the study.

63
Q

Strengths of independent groups design

A

+ No order effects
+ Decreased chance of demand characteristics

64
Q

Weaknesses of independent groups design

A
  • Individual differences
65
Q

Describe matched pairs design

A

Using different participants for each condition of the experiment but allocating each participant to a condition based on a relevant participant variable.

66
Q

Strengths of matched pairs design

A

+ Reduced order effects
+ Differences between groups are minimised

67
Q

Weaknesses of matched pairs design

A
  • Expensive and time consuming
  • Exact matches are rarely possible
68
Q

Describe order effects

A

Pp’s may become tired, bored, or become well-practiced when they do both conditions of the experiment. This can affect their behaviour and therefore impact the findings of the study, decreasing the validity.

69
Q

Describe individual differences

A

Different groups having different participants means that they could differ dispositionally or physically (e.g. being extroverted/introverted, or an age gap between pps). The disparity between pps means that they findings of the study could be impacted, and the validity decreases.

70
Q

Describe demand characteristics

A

Pps may guess the aim of the study and change their behaviour accordingly. This makes the findings less valid because it doesn’t reflect natural behaviour.

71
Q

Describe counterbalancing

A

Ensures that each condition in a repeated measures design is tested first or second in equal amounts.

72
Q

Describe randomisation

A

The order in which participants do the conditions is randomised.

73
Q

Weaknesses of open questions

A
  • Harder to draw conclusions
  • Interpretation is subjective
74
Q

What are case studies?

A

An in-depth analysis of one person or a small group (idiographic)

75
Q

Describe naturalistic observations

A

An observation conducted in an everyday environment where the behaviour being studied is normally seen.

76
Q

Strengths of naturalistic observations

A

High ecological validity – results can be applied to everyday life

77
Q

Weaknesses of naturalistic observations

A

Low reliability and low internal validity
– the lack of control over the research situation makes replication of the investigation difficult.
- Uncontrolled extraneous variables.

78
Q

Described structured observations

A

An observation carried out in a laboratory or a controlled environment

79
Q

Strengths of structured observations

A

High internal validity and reliability – extraneous variables are less of a factor so replication is easier

80
Q

Weaknesses of structured observations

A

Low ecological validity – findings cannot be as readily applied to real-life settings

81
Q

Describe covert observations

A

The participants are not aware that they are being observed as part of an investigation

82
Q

Strengths of covert observations

A

High internal validity – less chance of demand characteristics/observer effects

83
Q

Weaknesses of covert observations

A

Ethical issues – no consent or right to withdraw

84
Q

Describe overt observations

A

Participants are aware they are being observed as part of an investigation

85
Q

Strengths of covert observations

A

More ethical because participants have given consent and the right to withdraw

86
Q

Weaknesses of covert observations

A

Low internal validity; participants are likely to behave differently from normal if they know they’re being watched.

87
Q

Describe participant observations

A

An observer is involved in the group that they are observing.

88
Q

Strengths of participant observations

A

Increased internal validity because the researchers can experience the situation from the pps point of view, giving more realistic results

89
Q

Weaknesses of participant observations

A
  • Lowered task validity because the researchers disrupt the natural interactions as they are now intruding
  • Lowered internal validity as the researchers may identify too strongly with those they’re studying and lose objectivity
90
Q

Describe non-participant observations

A

The observer watches and records people without actively being involved

91
Q

Strengths of non-participant observations

A

Higher internal validity - Researcher can be more objective when standing back from the group

Less observer bias and disruption of the dynamics

92
Q

Weaknesses of non-participant observations

A

Researcher may miss special insights into behaviour that can only be gained from the ‘inside’

93
Q

Describe Time-Sampling

A

Encoding behaviours in a given time frame. For example, noting what a target individual is doing every 30 seconds.

94
Q

Strengths of time-sampling

A

Effective in reducing number of observations that have to be made

95
Q

Weaknesses of time sampling

A

Instances when behaviour is sampled might be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole

96
Q

Describe event sampling

A

Counting the number of times a certain behaviour (event) occurs in individuals

97
Q

Strengths of event sampling

A

Useful when target behaviour or event happens infrequently and could be missed if time sampling is used

98
Q

Weaknesses of event sampling

A

If the specified event is too complex, observer may overlook important details

99
Q

What are the different levels of measurement?

A

Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio

100
Q

Describe Nominal data

A
  1. Named categories
  2. No true mathematical value
  3. Categorised by labelling them
  4. No order
101
Q

Describe ordinal data

A
  • Ordered data
  • No true mathematical value
  • Understand relationships between questions
  • Likert-type questions
102
Q

Describe interval data

A
  • True mathematical values
  • No true zero
  • Test scores, temperature in degrees Celcius
103
Q

Describe ratio level data

A
  • True mathematical values
  • Relationship between data is known
  • There is a true zero
  • Height, weight, age, temperature in Kelvin
104
Q

Define the mean

A

The average number from a set of data. Add all the data together and divide by the number of individual pieces of data.

105
Q

Describe the mode

A

The number that occurs most frequently.

106
Q

Describe the median

A

The middle number after the numbers have been ranked. If there is an even number, add the two middle values and divide by 2.

107
Q
A

psychology paper 1 (6 decks)

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