Research Methods

Question 1

What is observer bias?

Answer 1

-When an observers reports are biased by what they expect to see

Question 2

What is inter observer reliability?

Answer 2

-When many researchers conduct the observational study and the results are compared
-This eliminates observer bias

Question 3

What can be used to minimised observer bias?

Answer 3

-Inter-observer reliability

Question 4

What are the observational designs?

Answer 4

-Structured (split into time sampling and event sampling)
-Unstructured

Question 5

What is the structured observational design?

Answer 5

-Structured design is when researchers quantify what they observe using predetermined lists of behaviours (behavioural categories) and record if this behaviour is done

Question 6

What is the strengths and weaknesses of the structured observational design?

Answer 6

-Strengths; Easier to measure as is more systematic and objective. Quantitive data is easy to analyse, graph and compare with other data. There also is less risk of observer bias
-Weaknesses; not much depth of detail, e.g missing information important to the result of the study. Difficult to achieve high inter-observer reliability as the predetermined lists are subjective e.g. does a half smile count as a smile?

Question 7

What is the unstructured observational design?

Answer 7

Researchers are continuously recording writing everything they see during the observation

Question 8

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the unstructured observational design?

Answer 8

-Strengths; More richness and depth of detail
-Weaknesses; Qualitative data is hard to record and analyse and can be highly subjective when operationalising. Also higher chance for observer bias

Question 9

What are behavioural categories in structured observation?

Answer 9

-This is when target behaviours which are being observed are broken up into more precise components which are observable and measurable (quantifiable)

Question 10

What are the sampling methods used during the structured observational design?

Answer 10

-Time sampling
-Event sampling

Question 11

What is time sampling?

Answer 11

-This is the recording of a behaviour within a timeframe that is pre-established (could be at intervals)

Question 12

What are the strengths and weaknesses of time sampling?

Answer 12

-Strengths: Less time consuming as it reduces the number of observations that has to be made
-Weaknesses: the small amount of collected may be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole and vital data may be missed

Question 13

What is event sampling?

Answer 13

-This involves counting the number of times a particular behaviour is carried out (No set time)

Question 14

What are the strengths and weaknesses of event sampling?

Answer 14

-Strengths; It is good for infrequent behaviours that are likely to be missed in time sampling
-Weaknesses; Counting errors of very frequent behaviours, it is subjective when a behaviour begins and ends and what counts as a behaviour. Important details may be missed

Question 15

What are the observational techniques?

Answer 15

-Naturalistic
-Controlled
-Overt
-Covert
-Participant
-Non-participant

Question 16

What is naturalistic observation?

Answer 16

-Researchers watch and record behaviours in a setting where it would normally take place

Question 17

What are the strengths and weaknesses of naturalistic observation?

Answer 17

-Strengths: both high ecological and external validity as it is done in a natural environment
-Limitations: Low ecological validity if the participants are aware they are being watched. Replication can be hard. Uncontrolled confounding extraneous variables are present

Question 18

What is controlled observation?

Answer 18

-Watching and recording behaviours in a structured environment like a lab

Question 19

What are the strengths and weaknesses of controlled observation?

Answer 19

-Strengths: Researchers are able to focus on a certain aspect of behaviour. Easy replication and more control of extraneous variables and confounding variables
-Limitations: Low mundane realism and ecological validity with demand characteristics. More likely to observe unnatural behaviour in this unnatural environment

Question 20

What is overt observation?

Answer 20

-Participants are knowingly watched and recorded

Question 21

What are the strengths and weaknesses of overt observation?

Answer 21

-Strengths; Ethical as there is informed consent
-Weaknesses: Demand characteristics and low ecological validity. More likely to observe unnatural behaviour

Question 22

What is covert observation?

Answer 22

-The participants are unaware that they are being watched and recorded

Question 23

What are the strengths and weaknesses of covert observation?

Answer 23

-Strengths: Natural behaviour hence high internal validity. Removes the issue of participants guessing the aim of the study
-Weaknesses: ethical issues as no informed consent and could be invading the privacy of participants

Question 24

What is the participant observational design?

Answer 24

-The researcher who is observing is part of the group that is being observed

Question 25

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the participant observational design?

Answer 25

-Strengths: Can be more insightful increasing validity
-Weaknesses: Participants behaviour likely to change if found to be observed and the researcher may lose objectivity as they may start to identify strongly with participants

Question 26

What is the non-participant observational technique?

Answer 26

-The researcher observes from a distance

Question 27

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the non-participant observational technique?

Answer 27

-Strengths: Researcher can be more objective as they are less likely to identify with participants
-Weaknesses: Reseacher may lose valuable insight and observer bias as he may be looking only for specific behaviours

Question 28

What is acquiescence bias?

Answer 28

-When in questionnaires, the participant answers yes to all the questions (Or no or the same answer instead)
-This can be tested by asking the same question later on but in reverse

Question 29

What are self report techniques and what are some examples?

Answer 29

-Self report techniques report to any sort of method where a person is asked personal information (e.g. opinions, feelings and experiences) in relation to a particular topic
-Examples are Questionnaires and Interviews

Question 30

What are questionnaires?

Answer 30

-They assess a persons thoughts or experience through a number of different written questions
-They can be either open-questioned or close-questioned

Question 31

What are open questions?

Answer 31

-This is when a question is asked and phrased in a way that the participant is free to answer any way that they like hence collecting qualitative data

Question 32

What are the strengths and weaknesses of open questions?

Answer 32

-Strengths; Rich in depth and detail and is better for sensitive topics as participants can elaborate upon their answers.
-Limitations; Difficult to convert to statistical data hence more difficult to analyse (hard to operationalise to quantitative data)

Question 33

What are closed questions?

Answer 33

-Questions which restricts you to a fixed number of responses e.g. rating scales
-collects quantitive data

Question 34

What are the strengths and weaknesses of closed questions?

Answer 34

-Strengths; easy to analyse data and compare with data from elsewhere as it is qualitative
-Limitations; lack of depth and detail and can limit true reposes which can be infuriating for participants

Question 35

What are some strengths of Questionnaires?

Answer 35

-Cost-effective
-Gathers large amounts of data quickly
-The researcher does not always need to be present
-Data can be easy to analyse
-can be anonymous allowing for participants to be more open

Question 36

What are some limitations of Questionnaires?

Answer 36

-Difficult to know whether the target population it was intended for answered, for example, if its online
-May take a long time to design
-difficult to assess validity as biases are present for example social desirability bias (when the particpant wants to present themselves in a positive light)
-Participant bias from factors such as age, gender and time
-Response bias where particpants may simply agree with all the questions instead of putting effort into it

Question 37

What are interviews and the types of interviews?

Answer 37

-This involves a live encounter where a set of questions is asked by an interviewer to an interviewee to assess their thoughts or experiences
-There are two main types of interviews, structured and unstructured

Question 38

What are Structured interviews?

Answer 38

-Only a set predetermined questions are asked during the interview

Question 39

What are the strengths and weaknesses of structured interviews?

Answer 39

-Strengths; Standardisation is possible, easily replicable and can make comparisons between participants easily
-Limitations; Interviewer bias presented through aspects like listening skills and body language. Furthermore, the interviewer may have interpretive bias, recording answers differently. The interviewee may have social desirability bias

Question 40

What are unstructured interviews?

Answer 40

-There are no predetermined questions and rather, they can develop as the interview goes on

Question 41

What are the strengths and weaknesses of unstructured interviews?

Answer 41

-Strengths; Lots of data is collected with more depth and detail and questions can be tailored to the individual giving more insight
-Weaknesses; skilled interviewers are needed, interviewer bias, social desirability bias. Different to make comparisons between participants. The analysis of data is difficult as may have to sift through a lot of irrelevant data

Question 42

What should be implemented in the design and method of a self report?

Answer 42

-Avoid complex language as participants may not understand the terms used and feel to embarrassed to ask or in questionaries to guess
-Interviews are great as questions as questions can be reworded to be understood easier whilst meaning the same thing
-There should be no leading questions which bias the response to in one direction by suggesting a ‘correct answer’
-a pilot interview/questionnaire can be done
-Filler questions can be used to ease participants into harder questions and through them of what the research is on hence reducing demand characteristics

Question 43

What are case studies?

Answer 43

-A detailed study onto a person(s) with unusual psychological behaviour covering great detail into their background and life
-Data is collected by interviews, observation and content analysis

Question 44

What are the strengths of case studies?

Answer 44

-Detailed to gain depth and insight
-forms basis for future research
-permits investigation of situations that would be otherwise unethical or impractical
-From studying unusual case, we can infer things about normal usual human behaviour

Question 45

What are the weaknesses of case studies?

Answer 45

-Not generalisable
-Many biases such as social desirability bias from the unusual person(S) or interpretive bias from the researcher
-retrospective studies may rely on memory or possibly false sources
-Time consuming and difficult to replicate