Research Methods

Question 1

What are positivists?

Answer 1

Positivists are the more ‘scientific’ sociologists.
They see our behaviour as the result of wider forces and think that research should uncover behaviours causes.
They favour quantitative data.
A famous example of a positivist is Durkheim.

Question 2

What are interpretivists?

Answer 2

Interpretivists are the more artsy, emotional sociologists.
They value understanding people’s behaviour from a small-scale perspective, focusing on meaning.
They favour qualitative data.
An example is Weber.

Question 3

What does reliability mean in relation to research?

Answer 3

If research can be repeated and obtain the same or similar results, it is reliable.
This means that you must use a standarised form of measurement e.g. the money in someone’s salary (objective data)
A reliable method creates data that can be used to systematically re-test hypotheses about social behaviour.

Question 4

What does representativeness mean in relation to research?

Answer 4

Research is representative if it can be generalised to fit the wider population. This is important as it’s rarely possible to study an entire population.
A sample might be selected which shares the characteristics of the wider population being studied to make research representative.
It allows general conclusions to be drawn.

Question 5

What does validity mean in relation to research?

Answer 5

Research is valid if it represents an accurate picture of what is happening. In other words, how true the data is.

Question 6

Define primary data

Answer 6

Data that is collected firsthand by sociologists themselves.

Evaluation: Recently collected making it more accurate. More fit to the study.

Question 7

Define secondary data

Answer 7

Data that has been collected by someone else.

Evaluation: May be outdated. Is collected by someone else for a different reason and the researcher has no control over the original data collection.

Question 8

Define and give examples of quantitative data

Answer 8

Quanititative data is numerical data that can be verified and can be statistically manipulated. For example, life expectancy, wage, crime rates.

Question 9

Define and give examples of qualitative data

Answer 9

Qualitative data is information that is subjective and used in an open-ended way. It is descriptive, which often comes from interviews and artistic depictions.

Question 10

List practical factors that must be taken into account before a study

Answer 10

• Finance
• Time
• Personal factors
• Research opportunity
• Source of funding
• Research subjects

Question 11

List ethical factors that must be taken into account before a study

Answer 11

• Confidentiality
• Informed consent
• Effects on research subject
• Covert research
• Vulnerable groups e.g. elderly, children, disabled, those in poverty

Question 12

List theoretical factors that must be taken into account before a study

Answer 12

• Representativity
• Validity
• Reliability

Question 13

What is a pilot study?

Answer 13

A pilot study is a small study to test research protocols, data collection instruments, sample recruitment strategies, and other research techniques in preparation for a larger study.

AKA a test run

Question 14

Evaluate and define systematic sampling

Answer 14

Pick every nth participant from target population.

Evaluation:
✓ Free from researcher bias
✓ Creates a fairly representative sample

Question 15

Evaluate and define random sampling

Answer 15

Participants are picked out of a target population using either a number generator or name-out-of-hat method.

Evaluation:
✓ Free from researcher bias
✗ Time-consuming
✗ Representative sample is not guaranteed (some sub-groups may be overrepresented or not selected)

Question 16

Evaluate and define stratified sampling

Answer 16

Target population divided into strata (groups). From each strata participants are randomly selected.

Evaluation:
✓ Avoids researcher bias
✗ May lack 100% representation

Question 17

Evaluate and define quota sampling

Answer 17

Quota sampling in sociology is a non-probability sampling technique where researchers select participants based on specific characteristics or quotas to ensure representation of different groups in the population. For example, if a researcher wants to study the opinions of students, they may use quota sampling to ensure equal representation of different grade levels or genders.

Evaluation:
✗ Does not have the element of random selection that is present in stratified sampling and is therefore considered lessreliable
✓ It helps in obtaining a diverse sample

Question 18

Evaluate and define snowball sampling

Answer 18

Snowball sampling is designed to find people to study and works a little like a chain letter. For example, if you were distributing a questionnaire, you could pass it to your own contacts who could then pass it on to theirs and so on.

Evaluation:
✗ Would not be representative of any identified target population
✓ Can access a large number of people

Question 19

Evaluate and definite laboratory experiments

Answer 19

Hypothesis is tested under controlled, “created” environment, focusing on independent and dependent variables

e.g. Stanford Prison Experiment, Milgram’s Research

Evaluation:
✓ Easily identify cause and effect relationships
✓ Highly reliable
✗ Artificiality -> lacks ecological validity due to artificial environment
✗ Hawthorne effect - knowing you’re in an experiment
✗ Consent - usually involves deception so obtaining informed consent can be difficult

Question 20

Evaluate and define field experiments

Answer 20

Hypothesis is testing in the “real world” and those involved are usually unaware

Evaluation:
✓ Less artificial -> more ecological validity
✓ People do not know they are in an experiment so there will be no Hawthorne effect
✗ Less control over variables, non-scientific
✗ Limited application
✗ Does not gain consent of those involved

Question 21

What are the variables in an experiment and what do you do to each one?

Answer 21

• Independent - change/manipulate
• Dependent - measure
• Control - keep the same

Question 22

Define and evaluate questionnaires

Answer 22

A set of questions asked the same way every time. Usually self-completion but can be done over the phone or face-to-face. Usually consist of mainly closed questions creating quantitative data which is associated with positivists

Evaluation:
✓ Relatively cheap compared to interviews
✓ Relatively quick to conduct
✓ Obtain quantitative data making it easy to compare
✓ Can be geographically widespread
✗ No way of stopping research if someone is upset
✗ Questions may be misunderstood
✗ Obtain quantitative data which lacks detail
✗ Response rate can be low leading to less representative data (can be remedied with incentives however incentives attract a certain group of people)

Question 23

Define and evaluate structured interviews

Answer 23

An interview that follows a list of pre-set questions. Interviewees choose from a limited list of possible answers. Usually done face-to-face or over the phone. Usually consist of mainly close-ended questions which creates quantitative data. Favoured by positivists.

Evaluation:
✓ Reliable because they can use a fixed list of questions so they can be easily repeated
✓ Relatively quick to collect so a large sample can be created making it more representative
✓ Cheapest form of interview
✗ Lack validity because the questions/response are predetermined
✗ Employing interviewers incurs a cost
✗ Not useful for many situations e.g. sensitive topics

Question 24

Define and evaluate unstructured interviews

Answer 24

An interview that asks mainly opened-ended questions. No fixed set to ask every person. Produce qualitative, meaningful data. Guided by interviewee as well as interviewer. Free-flowing, so similar to a natural conversation. A strong relationship is built between interviewer and interviewee. Favoured by interpretivists.

Evaluation:
✓ Participants are more likely to “open up” because they are informal
✓ Less chance of ideas being imposed as questions aren’t fixed
✓ Interviewers can add questions to explore answers further
✗ Not reliable at all
✗ Too much data
✗ Not always relevant
✗ Employing interviewers can be expensive
✗ A close relationship and conversational tone can make it less valid if behaviour is changed for interviewee/interviewer

Question 25

Evaluate participant observations

Answer 25

✓ Groups are observed in a natural and authentic setting so data is more likely to be a true account of behaviour - increased ecological validity
✓ Data generated is rich in detail and offers insight into social behaviour
✗ Open-ended & subjective so no fixed procedure or standardised system of measurement. Cannot be replicated
✗ Most participant observations investigate small-scale groups that are not representative of the wider population
✗ Hawthorne effect - observer is likely to affect the group’s behaviour
✗ Researcher is at risk of going native (over-identifying with the group)
✗ Difficult to ensure anonymity of participants
✗ Issues getting into group, staying or leaving

Question 26

Evaluate non-participant observations

Answer 26

✓ Limited risk of researcher ‘going native’
✗ Each observation will be subjective therefore cannot be repeated
✗ Generally use a small-scale research sample

Question 27

Evaluate overt observations

Answer 27

✓ Less ethical issues because participants know they’re being researched
✓ Higher level of reliability
✓ Observer can openly take notes
✓ Allows researcher to use interview methods too
✗ Relatively time-consuming
✗ Hawthorne effect
✗ Difficult to repeat
✗ Small sample size usually so less generalisable

Question 28

Evaluate covert observations

Answer 28

✓ No Hawthorne effect
✓ Find out more in-depth detail
✗ Immoral to deceive people
✗ Researcher has to gain trust and acceptance (may be time-consuming)

Question 29

what are the strengths of secondary research?

Answer 29

• not expensive
• quicker than primary

Question 30

advantages and disadvantages of overt

Answer 30

ADVANTAGES
- ethically correct
- more reliable
- can take notes openly

DISADVANTAGES
- can be time consuming
- hawthorne effect

Question 31

What is verstehen?

Answer 31

A word introduced by Weber referring to an empathetic approach to research

Question 32

What are independent variables?

Answer 32

Something you change

Question 33

What are dependent variables?

Answer 33

Something you measure

Question 34

What are control variables?

Answer 34

Something you keep the same

Question 35

Define and evaluate official statistics

Answer 35

Official statistics are quantitative data collected by government bodies e.g. NHS, Criminal Justice System, Police, Department of Education

Evaluation:
✓ Very easy to access
✓ Usually free
✓ Carried out over periods of time so you can see the trends
✓ Often cover the entire country
✗ The government collect statistics for their own benefit, so they may not cover exactly what you are looking to study
✗ Definitions of key concepts may differ, for example how a sociologist defines poverty may not be what the government defines as poverty

Question 36

Define and evaluate personal documents

Answer 36

Can be letters, diaries, memoirs, autobiographies, notes and photographs

Evaluation:
✓ Usually written for personal purposes so high in validity
✓ They are usually cheap and quick (if you can access them)
✗ Not all groups produce personal documents (e.g. vulnerable members of society)
✗ Hindsight might change data
✗ If an audience is in mind, this may change data