research methods Flashcards
No two individuals are alike
variable
A quantity or a characteristic that has
two or more mutually exclusive values
of properties
variable
types of variables
5
the stimulus
variable which is chosen by the
researcher to determine its
relationship to an observed
phenomenon
independent variable
response
variable that is observed and
measured to determine the effect of
the independent variable.
dependent variable
a secondary or special type
of independent variable chosen by the researcher
to ascertain if it alters or modifies the relationships
between the independent and dependent
variables
moderate variable
variable controlled by the
researcher in which the effects can be neutralized
by eliminating or removing the variable.
control variable
variable which interferes
with the independent and dependent variables,
but its effects can either strengthen o weaken the
independent and dependent variables
intervening variable
research process component
10
Quality of researchable problem
4
SMART
Specific, measurable, realistic, time-bound
the problem should be specifically
stated
specific
the problem should be specifically
stated
measurable
the data are achievable using
correct statistical techniques to arrive at precise
results
achievable
real results are not manipulated
realistic
time frame is required in every activity because the shorter the completion the better
time-bound
Criteria of a good research problem
5
an interesting research
problem attracts the attention of the
investigator to study the problem
further. It also makes him determined
to work on until its completion
interesting
researchers must keep in mind that
they work not for themselves but for
the people
relevant to the needs of people
a good research problem
may not be necessarily new. It may be
reinstatement and a restructuring of an
old problem to make it new. In this
manner, results will be more relevant
and useful to a greater number of
people
innovative
4ms
man, money, materials, machinery
A
research problem should be economical and
effective in solving the problems of the society; it
should also augment social, economical and health
conditions of the people and many others
cost-effective
– a good research
problem is measurable by using research
instruments, like tests, questionnaires, rating scales,
observation schedules or interviews, and statistical
treatment to arrive at scientific and meaningful
results. A good research can be completed within a
time frame stated. The shorter completion of the
project, the better
measurable and time-bound
The statement of purpose for which the
investigation is to be conducted.
research objectives
Also have the same characteristics,
SMART, with research problem
research objectives
Stated specifically in simple language in
order that the researcher finds them
easy to measure by using research
instruments in collecting data and these
data are achieved when correct
statistical techniques are used to arrive
at real results, but every activity to be
done, time frame is required because
the shorter completion of the activity,
the better
research objectives
Interrogative
problem
declarative
objective
They provide clear explanations
regarding the relationships of variables.
“The fact that variables can be shown
to be associated but does not
guarantee that the relationship of
variables has significance”. Theoretical
framework- legal basis to describe
properly that process of the study
theoretical and conceptual framework
shapes the
justification of the research
problem/research objectives in order to
provide the legal basis for defining its
parameters. It is desirable for an
investigator to identify key concepts that
are used in the study for better
understanding of the role of theory in
research
theoretical framework
symbolic construction which uses abstract
concepts, facts or laws, variables and their
relations that explains and predicts how an
observed phenomenon exists and operates. And
investigator is required to formulate existing
theories which link his study because theories
are useful devise for interpreting, criticizing, and
unifying established scientific laws or facts that
guide in discovering new generalizations
theoretical framework
presents specific and
well defined concepts which are called constructs.
Its function is similar with theoretical framework
because the constructs used are derived from
abstract concepts of the theoretical framework.
conceptual framework
Presented in either inductive or deductive
perspective
significance of the study
Should be presented comprehensively in
order to convince the screening
committee of the importance of the study
significance of the study
the researcher moves from
particular to the general, and presents the
importance of the study from the target
beneficiaries to the researcher himself, to
the people in the community, to the
people of the province, region and nation
inductive
general to particular,
discussion of the importance of the study
starts first from the national level down to
the researcher himself to the target
beneficiaries.
deductive
important contributions to:
5
Includes the coverage of the study area, the subjects, the research
instruments, the research issues or concerns, the duration of the study, and
the constraints that have direct bearing on the result of the study
scope and limitation of the study
Last section of chapter 1 of thesis, dissertation and research paper. Thesis
and dissertations do not include this section of the study if there are more
than 15 terms defined because tis portion is for the glossary. In this section,
the key terms are clearly defined
definition of terms
2 ways to define key terms:
conceptual and operational definition
– the definition of terms are based on concepts or
hypothetic ones which are usually taken from the dictionary
conceptual definition
– the definitions are based on observable
characteristics and how it is used in the study
operational definition
Aim to gain insight into the aspects of the
problem that are critical and controversial,
rrl
Provides the investigator a background
regarding the aspects which have been
studied and not yet studied.
rrl
assists him/her to do on the components of
the research process.
rrl
Gives ideas to proceed with his study until its
completion
rrl
to determine the similarities and differences
of the findings between the past and present
studies.
rrl
the investigator is required to read all
literature and studies partially and closely
related to his study
rrl
thre parts of literature
related readings, related literature, related studies
these are laws and department directives such as
circulars, orders, memoranda, and others which are related to the
present study. These will serve as legal bases for the paradigm of the
study. It also presents the study as having direct or indirect implications
to the government thrusts.
related readings
these are laws and department directives such as
circulars, orders, memoranda, and others which are related to the
present study. These will serve as legal bases for the paradigm of the
study. It also presents the study as having direct or indirect implications
to the government thrusts.
related literature
published and unpublished research studies are the
sources. It has direct bearing to the present study and are segregated
into foreign and local studies. Similar to related readings and related
literature, arranged in chronological order
related studies
the researcher should identify the bearing
of the related studies upon the present study.
justification of the present study
four kinds of research design
historical, descriptive, experimental, sampling
– study focused in the past
historical design
branch of knowledge concerned with past
events, especially those involving human affairs; search for
knowledge and the truth; any integrated narrative or descriptive
past events or facts written in a spirit of critical inquiry for the
whole truth.
history
A systematic and critical inquiry of the whole truth of past
events using critical method in the understanding and the
interpretation of facts which are applicable to current issues
and problems
historical design
is both science and art
research in history
Historical design is scientific and the narration thereof is an _____
art
History differs from the natural sciences because it is based
___________ which cannot be repeated,
although similar events may occur unlike in natural sciences
where it is based upon experimentation
upon the reports of observations
uses of historical research
5
major steps in historical research
3
sources of historical research
primary, secondary
under primary sources of historical design
documents, remains
– includes school directives
such as orders, circulars, constitution,
laws, charters, court decisions, executive
and other official records such as
proceedings of administrative officers and
bodies, reports of school surveys, annual
reports, courses of study, catalogues and
prospectuses, newspapers and
periodicals; personal materials such as
autobiographies, legal instruments
executed by individuals such as contracts,
wills, and deed.
documents
include the physical plant;
equipment, apparatus, teaching aids and
devices, picture of buildings or furnishing,
forms of diplomas and certificates,
textbooks and reference books
remains
materials as histories of
education, bibliographies, encyclopedias, and may
others. In some historical studies, it is necessary to start
with secondary sources if primary sources are not yet
available.
secondary sources
the focus is present condition.
descriptive design
examples of documents
orders, circulars, constitution,
laws, charters, court decisions, executive
and other official records such as
proceedings of administrative officers and
bodies, reports of school surveys, annual
reports, courses of study, catalogues and
prospectuses, newspapers and
periodicals; personal materials such as
autobiographies, legal instruments
executed by individuals such as contracts,
wills, and deed.
the purpose is to find the new truth
descriptive design
truth in different forms
5
are valuable in providing facts on
which scientific judgements may be based.
descriptive studies
They provide
essential knowledge about the nature of objects
descriptive studies
also play a large part in the
development of instruments for the measurement of
many things, instruments that are employed in all types
of quantitative research as data gathering instruments,
for instance, tests, questionnaires, interviews,
observation schedules, check lists, score cards, and
rating scales
descriptive studies
types of descriptive reseacrh
8
this approach is
appropriate whenever the object of any class
vary among themselves and one is interested in
knowing the extent to which different conditions
obtain among these objects.
descriptive survey
signifies the gathering of data regarding the present conditions
survey
useful in proving the value
facts, focusing attention on the most important
things to be reported.
survey
necessary to determine the psychological and
social aspects of research by way of application
or implementation of evidence to recognize
between facts and influence
descriptive survey
it may be used in solving practical problems
decriptive survey
sometimes used because surveys are frequently
made to ascertain the normal or typical
condition, or to compare local test results with a
state or national norm
descriptive-normative survey
seeks to answer questions to real facts
relating to existing conditions.
descriptive status
A technique in quantitative
description which determines the prevailing conditions in a
group of case chose for study. Stress current conditions with the
assumption that things will change. They cover many traits or
characteristics of the group
descriptive status
determines or describes the nature of
an object be separating it into parts. Its purpose is to discover
the nature of things
descriptive-analysis
employed in natural sciences
descriptive-classification
appraise carefully the worthiness of the current study
descriptive evaluative
comparative survey where the
researcher considers at least two entities (not manipulated) and
establishes a formal procedure for obtaining criterion data on
the basis of which he can compare and conclude which of the
two is better.
descriptive-comparatove
designed to determine the relationship of two variables
correlational survey
a problem-solving approach that the study is described in the future on “what
will be” when certain variables are carefully controlled or manipulated
experimental design
types of experimental design
9
is necessary especially fi the
population is to large where the 4 M’s
resources of the investigator are limited.
cost effective
may be defined as the method
of getting a representative portion of the
population.
sampling
the aggregate or total of
objects, persons, families, species, etc.
population
a value calculated from a sample distribution
statistic
corresponding value from a population distribution
parameter
the body of statistical
methods concerned with the making of
statements about population parameters for
sample statistics
sampling statistics
advantages of sampling
5
limitations of sampling
5
determination of sample size
researchers decision
sloven’s formula
n = N / 1 + N (e)^2
- a methodical process of
gathering and analyzing specific information to
proffer solutions to relevant questions and
evaluate the results
data collection
It focuses on finding out all
there is to a particular subject matter.
data collection
—— is
collected to be further subjected to ——- which seeks to explain a phenomenon.
data, hypothesis testing
two categories of data collection
primary and secondary data collection methods
the
gathering of raw data collected at the source.
primary data collection methods
It is a process of collecting the original data
collected by a researcher for a specific
research purpose.
primary data collection methods
referred to as the gathering of second-hand
data collected by an individual who is not the
original user.
secondary data collection methods
It is the process of collecting
data that is already existing, be it already
published books, journals, and/or online
portals.
secondary data collection methods
In terms of ease, it is much less
expensive and easier to collect.
secondary data collection methods
two categories of data collection methods
quantitative and qualitative
- dealing with something that
can be counted, they area presented in numbers and
require a mathematical calculation to deduce. -
questionnaires, surveys, and documents and records.
quantitative methods
These methods of primary data collection are
generally used to make long-term forecasts.
quantitative methods
consider factors other than
numerical values, it is based on the non-quantifiable
elements like the feeling or emotion of the researcher.
qualitative methods
useful in situations when historical data is not
available.
qualitative methods
useful in situations when historical data is not
available.
qualitative methods
Quantitative Data Collection Tools
Online
Mail
Face-to-face
Phone
Four different primary quantitative research designs
- Descriptive
- Correlational
- Experimental
- Quasi-experimental
explains the current status of a
variable using observational data collection
Descriptive research
Often, the
researcher begins without a hypothesis and lets the data
steer the direction of the study.
Descriptive research
seeks to collect data that shows
relationships between different occurrences
Correlational research
positive correlation
two variables either increase or decrease at the
same time.
negative correlation
increase in one
variable means a decrease in another.
zero correlation result,
, in which the relationship
between two variables is insignificant.
helps make
predictions based on historical relationships and in determining
the validity and reliability of a study.
correlation
also known as “true experimentation,”
uses the scientific method to determine the cause-and-effect
relationship between variables. T
experimental research
This method uses controls for all
of the crucial factors that could potentially affect the phenomena of
interest.
experimental research
researchers randomly
assign participants in an experiment to either the control or
treatment groups.
experimental research
also known as “causal-comparative,” is similar to experimental research.
quasi-experimental research
don’t control for some factors but otherwise
follow the scientific method to establish a cause-and-effect
relationship
quasi-experimental research
are used to collect data from the target
audience and gather insights into their preferences,
opinions, choices, and feedback related to their
products and services. Most survey software often a
wide range of question types to select.
surveys
comprise of one single or multiple choice
question. When it is required to have a quick pulse
of the audience’s sentiments, you can go for polls.
Because they are short in length, it is easier t get responses from the people
polls
the interviewer asks questions either
face-to-face or through telephone to the
respondents. In face-to-face interviews, the
interviewer asks a series of questions to the
interviewee in person and notes down responses. In
case it is not feasible to meet the person, the
interviewer can go for a telephonic interview. This
form of data collection is suitable when there are
only a few respondents. It is too time-consuming and
tedious to repeat the same process if there are many
participants
interviews
Simply put, it is a verbally administered questionnaire. In terms of
depth, it is surface level and is usually completed within a short period.
structured interviews
For speed and
efficiency, it is highly recommendable, but it lacks depth.
structured interviews
In this method, there subsist several key questions which
cover the scope of the areas to be explored.
semi-structured interviews
It allows a little more leeway for the
researcher to explore the subject matter.
semi-structured interviews
It is an in-depth interview that allows the researcher to collect a
wide range of information with a purpose.
unstructured interviews
An advantage of this method is the freedom it gives a researcher to combine structure with flexibility even though it is more time-consuming.
unstructured interviews
pros of unstructured interviews
In-depth information, Freedom of flexibility, Accurate data.
cons of unstructured interviews
Time-consuming, Expensive to collect.
Tools you can use to easily collect data.
audio recorder, digital camera, camcorder
used for recording sound on disc, tape, or film. Audio information can
meet the needs of a wide range of people, as well as provide alternatives to print data
collection tools.
audio recorder
can be used for transmitting those images to a monitor screen when the
need arises.
digital camera
used for collecting data through interviews. It provides a combination of
both an audio recorder and a video camera. The data provided is qualitative in nature
and allows the respondents to answer questions asked exhaustively. If you need to
collect sensitive information during an interview, a camcorder might not work for you as
you would need to maintain your subject’s privacy
camcorder
market experts are provided
with the estimates and assumptions of forecasts
made by other experts in the industry. Experts
may reconsider and revise their estimates and
assumptions based on the information provided by
other experts. The consensus of all experts on
demand forecasts constitutes the final demand
forecast.
delphi technique
a small group of people, around
8-10 members, discuss the common areas of the
problem. Each individual provides his insights on
the issue concerned. A moderator regulates the
discussion among the group members. At the end
of the discussion, the group reaches a consensus.
focus groups
is a printed set of questions, either
open-ended or closed-ended. The respondents
are required to answer based on their knowledge
and experience with the issue concerned. The
questionnaire is a part of the survey, whereas the
questionnaire’s end-goal may or may not be a
survey.
questionnaire
Three commonly used qualitative data collection methods
ethnographic, grounded theory, phenomenological
comes from anthropology, the study of
human societies and cultures.
enthographic
arose when sociological
researchers sought to provide a level of legitimacy to
qualitative research — to ground it in reality rather
than assumptions
grounded theory
describes how people experience
certain events or unique encounters. T
phenomenological
his method
measures reactions to occurrences that are outside of
the norm, so it’s essential to understand the whole
picture, not just facts and figures
phenomenological
is the data that has been used in the
past. The researcher can obtain data from the sources,
both internal and external, to the organization.
secondary data
can involve both quantitative and qualitative
techniques.
secondary data
is easily available and
hence, less time-consuming and expensive as
compared to the primary data
secondary data
the authenticity of
the data gathered cannot be verified.
secondary data
Internal sources of secondary data:
Organization’s health and safety records
Mission and vision statements
Financial Statements
Magazines
Sales Report
CRM Software
Executive summaries
External sources of secondary data
Government reports
Press releases
Business journals
Libraries
Internet
converting information either
manually or by machine into quantitative and
qualitative forms for use in research analysis
data processing
3 Basic steps of Data Processing
categorization of data, coding of data, tabulation of data
refers to the
grouping of subjects under study according to
the objectives and purposes of the study.
categorization of data
information from
questionnaires, interview schedules, rating
scale, etc., must be transformed into coded
items to facilitate tabulation of data. The
codes may be either numerical or
alphabetical. The former is commonly used
because of sufficient number coverage and
its fitted for computer processing. – option to
used own codes, provided, however, that the
number of digits to be used in codes is
ascertained by the number of categories and
total number of cases
coding of data
tallying and counting the raw data
to arrive at a frequency distribution and to facilitate in
organizing them in a systematic order in a table or several
tables. It can be done either manual or by machine, such
as electric computer or a mechanical counter-sorter.
tabulation of data
data are manually tallied by hand This
is applicable if the total number of cases is small.
manual tabulation
presentation of data is usually in tabular
form. The data processing output is either quantitative or
qualitative.
data matrix
Useful in analysis and interpretation because they give a
clear picture of the results of the study.
data matrix
statistical treatment
x or %
an examination of data or facts in terms of quantity, quality,
attribute, trait, pattern, trend, relationship among others so as to answer
research questions which involve statistical techniques and procedures
data analysis
specific problems/objectives,
hypotheses, measuring instruments and statistical tools
basis of analyzing research data
