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A-Level Psychology (Paper 2) > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is an experiment?

A

The manipulation of the IV to measure the effect on the DV

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2
Q

What is a variable?

A

The thing that changes in the investigation

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3
Q

What is the independent variable

A

The thing that is manipulated

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4
Q

What is the dependant variable

A

The thing that is measured

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5
Q

Control?

A

Without manipulation

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6
Q

Experimental?

A

With manipulation

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7
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A prediction made before the investigation

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8
Q

What is a directional hypothesis?

A

A prediction that states the difference between two conditions, whilst predicting the direction of the results

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9
Q

What is a correlation hypothesis?

A

A prediction that states a relationship

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10
Q

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

A

A prediction used when there is no previous research or when there is a lot of contradictory research

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11
Q

What is a non-directional correlation?

A

A prediction that states there is going to be a relationship

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12
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

A prediction that states nothing will be found. Every investigation must have one

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13
Q

What are research methods?

A

Strategies, processes or techniques used in the collection of data or evidence to uncover new information

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14
Q

What should research methods aim to be?

A

Objective and repeatable

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15
Q

What is a research aim?

A

It is a statement, made before the experiment, of what researchers intend to discover

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16
Q

What does operationalise mean?

A

Ensuring variables are in a form they can be easily tested and specifically defined e.g. confidence levels = confidence scale

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17
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

•May have an affect on the DV if not controlled
•Their effect is random

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18
Q

What are confounding variables?

A

•Varies systematically with the DV
•Fixed system

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19
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Any cue from the researchers / situation that reveals the intention of the study

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20
Q

What are investigator effects?

A

•The effect of the investigator’s behaviour on the DV e.g. The selection of participants

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21
Q

What is randomisation?

A

The use of chance to control for the effects of bias e.g. being randomly allocated to a different condition

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22
Q

What is standardisation?

A

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants. This helps control variables

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23
Q

What are blind procedures?

A

Participants don’t know what conditions they are taking part in. This reduces demand characteristics

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24
Q

What must psychologists do when carrying out an experiment?

A

They must decide how they are going to distribute their participants effectively

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25
Q

What is an independent group design?

A

When different participants are used in each condition of the experiment

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26
Q

What is a repeated measures design?

A

When the same participants take part in both conditions

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27
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

Arranging the order of conditions or treatments in a way that reduces the influence of other factors e.g. Testing different participants in different orders

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28
Q

What is a matched pairs design?

A

Pairs of participants are matched in terms of variables, such as age

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29
Q

What are the four types of experimental methods?

A

Laboratory
field
natural
quasi

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30
Q

What is a lab experiment?

A

-An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment

-The researcher manipulates the IV

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31
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

An experiment that takes place in a natural setting

The researcher that cannot manipulate the IV

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32
Q

What is a quasi experiment?

A

An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment, but where the IV has not been determined by anyone

A variable that simply “exists”

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33
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A

An experiment that takes place in a natural environment

The change in IV is not manipulated by the researcher, but would’ve changed without their presence

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34
Q

What is ecological validity

A

Can the thing that is being measured be applied to real-life situations

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35
Q

What is population?

A

Refers to the group of individuals that a particular researcher may be interested in studying

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36
Q

What is target population?

A

Refers to a particular subset of the overall population from which the sample will be taken

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37
Q

What is a sample?

A

Refers to the group of people who take part in a research investigation

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38
Q

What does representative mean?

A

Do the individuals in the sample contain the same characteristics as the target population from which the sample was taken

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39
Q

What is random sampling?

A

The sample is generated using a lottery method e.g. random number generator

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40
Q

What is systemic sampling?

A

When every nth number of a population is selected from a sampling frame

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41
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

The composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub groups (strata)

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42
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Selecting anyone who happens to be willing or available to take part

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43
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

An ad is produced and individuals self select themselves to take part

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44
Q

What are the strengths and limitations of random sampling?

A

-There isn’t bias towards certain groups

-Certain groups may be over represented
-Time consuming
-Participants may refuse

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45
Q

What are the strengths and limitations of systemic sampling?

A

-Free from researcher bias
-Usually fairly represented

-Time consuming
-Some groups may be over represented
-Participants may refuse

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46
Q

What are the strengths and limitations of stratified sampling?

A

-Free from researcher bias
-Most representative sample

-Complete representation is impossible
-Time consuming
-Participants may refuse to

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47
Q

What are the strengths and limitations of opportunity sampling?

A

-More time efficient
-It saves money

-It can be unrepresentative
-Researcher bias

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48
Q

What are the strengths and limitations of volunteer sampling?

A

Strength:
-More time efficient

Limitation:
-Volunteer bias- unrepresentative, certain people like to volunteer

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49
Q

What are ethical issues?

A

Issues that arise when there is a conflict between the rights of the participants and the researcher’s goals

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50
Q

What are the 5 types of ethical issues?

A

Informed consent, right to withdraw, confidentiality, deception, protection from harm

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51
Q

Explain informed consent

A

Participants have the right to be given detailed info concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it

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52
Q

Explain the right to withdraw

A

Participants should be able to withdraw and refuse permission to use the data they have produced during or after the experiment

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53
Q

Explain confidentiality

A

A participants right to have their personal info protected and right to remain anonymous

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54
Q

Explain protection from harm

A

Participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects

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55
Q

Explain deception

A

Deliberately misleading or withholding info

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56
Q

What is a cost-benefit analysis?

A

When the ethics committee weigh up the costs and benefits of research proposals to decide whether the research should go ahead

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57
Q

How do you obtain consent?

A

A consent letter detailing all relevant info

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58
Q

What are the 3 ways of getting consent when it is impractical to get informed consent?

A

Presumptive, prior general, retrospective

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59
Q

What is presumptive consent?

A

Rather than getting consent form participants, a similar group are asked if the study is acceptable and if they agree, participants consent is “presumed”

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60
Q

What is prior general consent?

A

Participants consent to take part in a number of different studies, including one that involves deception

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61
Q

What is retrospective consent?

A

Participants are asked for their consent after having taken part in the study

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62
Q

What should the full debrief at the end of the study detail?

A

The aims of the investigation and any details that they were not supplied with during the studies

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63
Q

Why should participants be told what their data will be used for?

A

-They may have not been told already
-They may have been unaware that they were in a study

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64
Q

What is the right to withhold data?

A

The participants right to keep the data they have produced in the study away from the researcher

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65
Q

When is the right to withdraw particularly important?

A

After the study

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66
Q

Why should participants be reassured that their behaviour was typical or normal?

A

To address any concerns they may have

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67
Q

What are 2 ways researchers can deal with confidentiality ?

A
  • Record no record personal details
  • Refer to participants by numbers or initials
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68
Q

What is the BPS? And what do they do?

A

The British Psychological Society.
Their code instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is acceptable and unacceptable when dealing with patients

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69
Q

What is internal validity?

A

Is the researcher measuring what was intended in the study? Or are there other variables that are impacting the research?

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70
Q

What is external validity?

A

Can the findings be generalised? Or is the environment too unnatural?

71
Q

What is objectivity?

A

Are the researchers being opinion free? Or could they be influenced by the people they are observing?

72
Q

What are observations?

A

-Non experimental methods , meaning they cannot establish a cause and effect

-There is no independent variable

73
Q

What do observations allow?

A

-Psychologists can see what people do without having to ask them

-Interactions between variables can be studied in a more natural way

74
Q

What are the 6 observations?

A

Naturalistic, controlled, covert, overt, participant, non-participant

75
Q

What is a naturalistic observation?

A

Watching and recording behaviour in a setting which they would normally occur

76
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A

Watching and recording behaviour in a controlled environment

77
Q

What are covert observations?

A

Participants behaviour is recorded without their knowledge

78
Q

What are overt observations?

A

Participants behaviour is recorded with their knowledge

79
Q

What are participant observations?

A

A researcher becomes a member of the group they are observing

80
Q

What are non-participant in observations?

A

A researcher remains outside of the group they are observing

81
Q

What are the 2 type of observational design?

A

Unstructured and structured

82
Q

What is an unstructured observation? And when is it appropriate?

A

-When the researcher writes down everything that they see

-When the observation is on a small scale and involves few participants

83
Q

What type of data do unstructured observations produce? And what are positives and negatives of this?

A

-Qualitative

-A negative- it is more difficult to analyse

-A positive- it is more rich and has more in depth data

84
Q

What are unstructured observations prone to?

A

Bias. Because they may only record behaviours that “catch their eye” and those may not be the most important or useful

85
Q

What are structured observations? And when is it appropriate?

A

-It’s used when there are too many participants for the researcher to record everything

86
Q

What type of data do structured observations produce? And what are positives and negatives of this?

A

-Numerical/quantitative

-Positive- they are more straightforward to analyse

-The information recieved is less detailed

87
Q

What is observers bias?

A

When the observers’ expectations impact what they see or hear. This reduces the validity of the observations

88
Q

What type of observational design is more likely to have observer bias? And why?

A

Unstructured. Because the observer is more likely to record the behaviour they want to

89
Q

What is a target behaviour? And what must they be?

A

The behaviour that is the main focus of the observation. They must be clearly defined before an observation

90
Q

What are behavioural categories?

A

A list of pre-determined behaviour and sampling methods to help researchers quantify their observations

91
Q

How do behavioural categories impact data collection?

A

They make it more structured and objective

92
Q

Why is it important that behavioural categories are clear and unambiguous?

A

So that they do not require further interpretation by the researcher as this will be different for each person

93
Q

What is a “dustbin category”?

A

Where different behaviours are deposited because they do not have their own behavioural category

94
Q

Why should behavioural categories not overlap?

A

If they do, you don’t know which category the behaviour belongs to

95
Q

What happens if behavioural categories are not clearly defined?

A

The two or more observers might interpret it differently, making the observation unreliable

96
Q

What are inferences?

A

Conclusions made on the basis of evidence

97
Q

What are the 3 sampling methods?

A

Continuous recording, event and time

98
Q

What is continuous recording? And when is it appropriate?

A

When all target behaviours are recorded. When there are no complex behaviours on display

99
Q

What is event sampling? And when is it appropriate?

A

-When a target behaviour or event is established, and the researcher records this event every time it occurs

-When behaviour or event happens frequently

100
Q

What is time sampling? And when is it appropriate?

A

-When an individual or group is observed, and the researchers record their behaviour in a fixed time frame

-When there are lots of people to observe?

101
Q

What is the main issue with time sampling?

A

Important behaviours may be missed if they do not occur at the set time interval

102
Q

What is inter observer reliability?

A

The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in the observation of behaviour

103
Q

What is a self report technique?

A

Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic

104
Q

What are the two types of self report measures?

A

Questionnaires and interviews

105
Q

What is a questionnaire?

A

A set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers

106
Q

What are the two types of questions?

A

Open and closed questions

107
Q

Explain what an open question is and what type of data it produces

A

-Open questions are questions for which there is no fixed response and respondents can answer in any way they wish

-Qualitative data

108
Q

Explain what a closed question is and what type of data it produces

A

-Closed questions are questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question setter

-Quantitative data

109
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of qualitative data?

A

-Strength- More detailed information

-Weakness- Hard to analyse the data

110
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative data?

A

-Strength- Easier to analyse the data

-Weakness- The data is not detailed enough

111
Q

What are the three main types of scales associated with closed questions?

A

-Fixed choice question
-Likert scale
-Rating scale

112
Q

5 points

What are the common errors in question design?

A

-Overuse of jargon
-Emotive language
-Leading questions
-Double-barrelled questions
-Double negatives

113
Q

What is meant by jargon?

A

Technical terms that are only familiar to those within a specialised field or area

114
Q

What are leading questions?

A

A question that guides the respondent to a particular answer

115
Q

What are double-barrelled questions?

A

When there are two questions in one

116
Q

What are double negatives?

A

-A statement containing two negative elements

-E.g. I am not unhappy

117
Q

What is response bias?

A

When respondents reply in a similar way

118
Q

What form of response bias is associated to questionnaires?

A

Acquiescence bias

119
Q

What is acquiescence bias?

A

This is the tendency to agree with items on a questionnaire regardless of the content of the question

120
Q

What type of demand characteristic is associated with questionnaires?

A

Social desirability bias

121
Q

What is social desirability bias?

A

When the answer of respondents is influenced by their desire to portray themselves in a certain way

122
Q

3 points

Evaluate the strengths of questionnaires

A

-Cost effective as they can gather large amounts of data quickly as they can be distributed to large amounts of people quickly

-It can be completed without the presence of a researcher

-The data produced is usually simple to analyse

123
Q

2 points

Evaluate the limitations of questionnaires

A

-The responses given may not always be truthful because of social desirability bias

-They often produce response bias as respondents may complete the questionnaire too quickly and fail to read the question properly

124
Q

Define the term interview

A

A live encounter face to face or over the phone where the interviewer asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee’s thoughts and/or experiences.

125
Q

What are the three types of interview?

A

Structured, unstructured, and semi-structured

126
Q

What is a structured interview?

A

An interview where the questions are decided in advance

127
Q

2 points

What is an unstructured interview?

A

-An interview that starts out with some general aims and some possible questions and lets the interviewee’s answers guide the subsequent questions

128
Q

What is a semi-structured interview?

A

An interview that combines some pre-determined questions and some questions developed in response to answers given

129
Q

What is an interview schedule?

A

A set of pre-set questions for the interviewer to use

130
Q

Define the term interviewer bias?

A

Bias that occurs as a result of the interviewer

131
Q

What is a group interview?

A

An interview when more than one participant is interviewed at one time

132
Q

Evaluate the strengths of a structured interview

A

-High reliability as it is easy to replicate due to the questions being standardised for everyone

-Low interviewer bias as all the interviewees are asked the same questions

-The data is easy to analyse as the results are easily quantifiable (expressed as a number)

133
Q

Evaluate the limitations of a structured interview

A

-Mixed validity because the interviewer cannot delve deeper into the interviewee’s thoughts and feelings but can measure what they have intended to measure

-There is high social desirability bias. This is because there is no rapport established between the interviewer and interviewee, so the interviewee is more comfortable with lying

134
Q

What is mundane realism?

A

Whether or not the experiment mirrors everyday life

135
Q

What is temporal validity?

A

Whether or not studies are applicable to different time periods

136
Q

What is face validity?

A

This is when a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what is supposed to measure

137
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

This is the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure that we know to be valid

138
Q

How can something be checked using concurrent validity? What score shows there is concurrent validity?

A

-Comparing a new test to an existing test to see if they produce similar results

-Correlation coefficient. For there to be high concurrent validity, the value needs to be over 0.8

139
Q

What is reliability?

A

How consistently a method measures something. It relates to our ability to repeat a study and obtain the same results

140
Q

What are the two methods used to assess internal validity?

A

The split half method and inter-observer reliability

141
Q

What is the split half method?

A

When half the questions are compared with the other half of the questions to check for a similar level of difficulty

142
Q

What is inter observer reliability?

A

The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in the observation of behaviour

143
Q

What are the two methods used to assess external validity?

A

The test-retest method and replication

144
Q

What is the test-retest method?

A

If the same questionnaire/interview is conducted more than once, then the same results should be obtained

145
Q

What is replication?

A

An experiment should obtain the same results ,when repeated, if the same standardised procedures are used

146
Q

3 points

How do you assess reliability, using the test-retest method?

A

1) Participants do the same test a second time, with the researcher involved

2)The two tests are correlated, comparing the scores

3)The correlation is then checked. Significant correlation indicates a reliable test. Researchers generally accept +0.8 as a reasonable degree of reliability

147
Q

3 points

How do you assess reliability, using inter-observer reliability?

A

1)Two observers use the same behavioural categories, which are agreed upon before the observation

2)The 2 observers make independent observations/tallies over a set period of time

3)They then check for agreement between observers. The two observers’ tally chart would be compared to check for agreement

148
Q

What is a case study?

A

A logitudinal, in depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, investigation or event

149
Q

What do case studies involve?And why?

A

Case studies often the analysis of unusual individuals or events and collecting additional data from family and friends. This is because they provide insights into areas that psychologists could not study through manipulation because it would be unethical to do so

150
Q

What type of data is collected in a case study?

A

Qualitative data

151
Q

When would quantative data be collected in a case study?

A

If the person or people complete experimental or psychological testing to assess what they are and are not capable of

152
Q

What is content analysis?

A

When behaviour is indirectly studied by examining the communications that people produce e.g. spoken interaction, written forms or media

153
Q

What is coding?

A

The stage of content analysis in which the communication to be is analysed by identifying each instance of the chosen categories

154
Q

What is thematic analysis?

A

Identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. The data is then organised according to these themes

155
Q

3 points

Evaluate the strengths of content analysis

A

-It can get around many of the ethical issues normally associated with psychological research

-Its a flexible research method

-It produces data that is high in ecological validity

156
Q

2 points

Evaluate the limitation of content analysis

A

-It tells us what rather than why

-It is at risk of observer bias

157
Q

What are the 4 different types of data

A

Qualitative, quantitative, primary and secondary

158
Q

What is qualitative research?

A

A written description of thoughts, feelings and opinions

159
Q

What are the pros of qualitative research?

A

-Detailed information
-Allows participants to more fully record their thoughts

160
Q

2 points

What are the cons of qualitative research?

A

-Harder to analyse
-Subjective

161
Q

What is quantitative data?

A

Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers

162
Q

What are the pros of quantitative data?

A

-Simple to analyse

163
Q

2 points

What are the cons of quantitative data?

A

-Less detail
-More objective

164
Q

What is primary data?

A

Information obtained first hand by the researcher

165
Q

What are the pros of primary data?

A

-The data is authentic

166
Q

2 points

What are the cons of primary data?

A

-Time consuming
-Takes up resources

167
Q

What is secondary data?

A

Data that has been collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research

168
Q

3 points

What are the pros of secondary research?

A

-Inexpensive
-Easily accessible
-Requires minimal effort

169
Q

What are the cons of secondary research?

A

-Information may be inaccurate, outdated or incomplete

170
Q

What is a meta-analysis?

A

The statistical combination of the results of multiple studies addressing a similar research question

171
Q

2 points

Explain a meta-analysis

A

-Researchers may discuss the findings/conclusions. This is known as qualitative analysis

-Researchers may use a quantitative approach and statistically analyse the combined data. This involves calculating an effect size

172
Q

What is qualitative analysis?

A

Researchers discussing the findings/conclusions of a study

173
Q

What is the effect size?

A

An overall statistical measure of the difference or relationship between variables across a number of studies

174
Q

2 points

Evaluate the pros of meta-analysis

A

-It allows us to view data with much more confidence as the research has already been published, so its validity is known

-The data can be generalised to larger populations as it involves using a number of pieces of research. This increases the same sizes

A-Level Psychology (Paper 2) (6 decks)

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