Research Methods Flashcards
What is an experiment?
The manipulation of the IV to measure the effect on the DV
What is a variable?
The thing that changes in the investigation
What is the independent variable
The thing that is manipulated
What is the dependant variable
The thing that is measured
Control?
Without manipulation
Experimental?
With manipulation
What is a hypothesis?
A prediction made before the investigation
What is a directional hypothesis?
A prediction that states the difference between two conditions, whilst predicting the direction of the results
What is a correlation hypothesis?
A prediction that states a relationship
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
A prediction used when there is no previous research or when there is a lot of contradictory research
What is a non-directional correlation?
A prediction that states there is going to be a relationship
What is a null hypothesis?
A prediction that states nothing will be found. Every investigation must have one
What are research methods?
Strategies, processes or techniques used in the collection of data or evidence to uncover new information
What should research methods aim to be?
Objective and repeatable
What is a research aim?
It is a statement, made before the experiment, of what researchers intend to discover
What does operationalise mean?
Ensuring variables are in a form they can be easily tested and specifically defined e.g. confidence levels = confidence scale
What are extraneous variables?
•May have an affect on the DV if not controlled
•Their effect is random
What are confounding variables?
•Varies systematically with the DV
•Fixed system
What are demand characteristics?
Any cue from the researchers / situation that reveals the intention of the study
What are investigator effects?
•The effect of the investigator’s behaviour on the DV e.g. The selection of participants
What is randomisation?
The use of chance to control for the effects of bias e.g. being randomly allocated to a different condition
What is standardisation?
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants. This helps control variables
What are blind procedures?
Participants don’t know what conditions they are taking part in. This reduces demand characteristics
What must psychologists do when carrying out an experiment?
They must decide how they are going to distribute their participants effectively
What is an independent group design?
When different participants are used in each condition of the experiment
What is a repeated measures design?
When the same participants take part in both conditions
What is counterbalancing?
Arranging the order of conditions or treatments in a way that reduces the influence of other factors e.g. Testing different participants in different orders
What is a matched pairs design?
Pairs of participants are matched in terms of variables, such as age
What are the four types of experimental methods?
Laboratory
field
natural
quasi
What is a lab experiment?
-An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment
-The researcher manipulates the IV
What is a field experiment?
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting
The researcher that cannot manipulate the IV
What is a quasi experiment?
An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment, but where the IV has not been determined by anyone
A variable that simply “exists”
What is a natural experiment?
An experiment that takes place in a natural environment
The change in IV is not manipulated by the researcher, but would’ve changed without their presence
What is ecological validity
Can the thing that is being measured be applied to real-life situations
What is population?
Refers to the group of individuals that a particular researcher may be interested in studying
What is target population?
Refers to a particular subset of the overall population from which the sample will be taken
What is a sample?
Refers to the group of people who take part in a research investigation
What does representative mean?
Do the individuals in the sample contain the same characteristics as the target population from which the sample was taken
What is random sampling?
The sample is generated using a lottery method e.g. random number generator
What is systemic sampling?
When every nth number of a population is selected from a sampling frame
What is stratified sampling?
The composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub groups (strata)
What is opportunity sampling?
Selecting anyone who happens to be willing or available to take part
What is volunteer sampling?
An ad is produced and individuals self select themselves to take part
What are the strengths and limitations of random sampling?
-There isn’t bias towards certain groups
-Certain groups may be over represented
-Time consuming
-Participants may refuse
What are the strengths and limitations of systemic sampling?
-Free from researcher bias
-Usually fairly represented
-Time consuming
-Some groups may be over represented
-Participants may refuse
What are the strengths and limitations of stratified sampling?
-Free from researcher bias
-Most representative sample
-Complete representation is impossible
-Time consuming
-Participants may refuse to
What are the strengths and limitations of opportunity sampling?
-More time efficient
-It saves money
-It can be unrepresentative
-Researcher bias
What are the strengths and limitations of volunteer sampling?
Strength:
-More time efficient
Limitation:
-Volunteer bias- unrepresentative, certain people like to volunteer
What are ethical issues?
Issues that arise when there is a conflict between the rights of the participants and the researcher’s goals
What are the 5 types of ethical issues?
Informed consent, right to withdraw, confidentiality, deception, protection from harm
Explain informed consent
Participants have the right to be given detailed info concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it
Explain the right to withdraw
Participants should be able to withdraw and refuse permission to use the data they have produced during or after the experiment
Explain confidentiality
A participants right to have their personal info protected and right to remain anonymous
Explain protection from harm
Participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects
Explain deception
Deliberately misleading or withholding info
What is a cost-benefit analysis?
When the ethics committee weigh up the costs and benefits of research proposals to decide whether the research should go ahead
How do you obtain consent?
A consent letter detailing all relevant info
What are the 3 ways of getting consent when it is impractical to get informed consent?
Presumptive, prior general, retrospective
What is presumptive consent?
Rather than getting consent form participants, a similar group are asked if the study is acceptable and if they agree, participants consent is “presumed”
What is prior general consent?
Participants consent to take part in a number of different studies, including one that involves deception
What is retrospective consent?
Participants are asked for their consent after having taken part in the study
What should the full debrief at the end of the study detail?
The aims of the investigation and any details that they were not supplied with during the studies
Why should participants be told what their data will be used for?
-They may have not been told already
-They may have been unaware that they were in a study
What is the right to withhold data?
The participants right to keep the data they have produced in the study away from the researcher
When is the right to withdraw particularly important?
After the study
Why should participants be reassured that their behaviour was typical or normal?
To address any concerns they may have
What are 2 ways researchers can deal with confidentiality ?
- Record no record personal details
- Refer to participants by numbers or initials
What is the BPS? And what do they do?
The British Psychological Society.
Their code instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is acceptable and unacceptable when dealing with patients
What is internal validity?
Is the researcher measuring what was intended in the study? Or are there other variables that are impacting the research?
What is external validity?
Can the findings be generalised? Or is the environment too unnatural?
What is objectivity?
Are the researchers being opinion free? Or could they be influenced by the people they are observing?
What are observations?
-Non experimental methods , meaning they cannot establish a cause and effect
-There is no independent variable
What do observations allow?
-Psychologists can see what people do without having to ask them
-Interactions between variables can be studied in a more natural way
What are the 6 observations?
Naturalistic, controlled, covert, overt, participant, non-participant
What is a naturalistic observation?
Watching and recording behaviour in a setting which they would normally occur
What is a controlled observation?
Watching and recording behaviour in a controlled environment
What are covert observations?
Participants behaviour is recorded without their knowledge
What are overt observations?
Participants behaviour is recorded with their knowledge
What are participant observations?
A researcher becomes a member of the group they are observing
What are non-participant in observations?
A researcher remains outside of the group they are observing
What are the 2 type of observational design?
Unstructured and structured
What is an unstructured observation? And when is it appropriate?
-When the researcher writes down everything that they see
-When the observation is on a small scale and involves few participants
What type of data do unstructured observations produce? And what are positives and negatives of this?
-Qualitative
-A negative- it is more difficult to analyse
-A positive- it is more rich and has more in depth data
What are unstructured observations prone to?
Bias. Because they may only record behaviours that “catch their eye” and those may not be the most important or useful
What are structured observations? And when is it appropriate?
-It’s used when there are too many participants for the researcher to record everything
What type of data do structured observations produce? And what are positives and negatives of this?
-Numerical/quantitative
-Positive- they are more straightforward to analyse
-The information recieved is less detailed
What is observers bias?
When the observers’ expectations impact what they see or hear. This reduces the validity of the observations
What type of observational design is more likely to have observer bias? And why?
Unstructured. Because the observer is more likely to record the behaviour they want to
What is a target behaviour? And what must they be?
The behaviour that is the main focus of the observation. They must be clearly defined before an observation
What are behavioural categories?
A list of pre-determined behaviour and sampling methods to help researchers quantify their observations
How do behavioural categories impact data collection?
They make it more structured and objective
Why is it important that behavioural categories are clear and unambiguous?
So that they do not require further interpretation by the researcher as this will be different for each person
What is a “dustbin category”?
Where different behaviours are deposited because they do not have their own behavioural category
Why should behavioural categories not overlap?
If they do, you don’t know which category the behaviour belongs to
What happens if behavioural categories are not clearly defined?
The two or more observers might interpret it differently, making the observation unreliable
What are inferences?
Conclusions made on the basis of evidence
What are the 3 sampling methods?
Continuous recording, event and time
What is continuous recording? And when is it appropriate?
When all target behaviours are recorded. When there are no complex behaviours on display
What is event sampling? And when is it appropriate?
-When a target behaviour or event is established, and the researcher records this event every time it occurs
-When behaviour or event happens frequently
What is time sampling? And when is it appropriate?
-When an individual or group is observed, and the researchers record their behaviour in a fixed time frame
-When there are lots of people to observe?
What is the main issue with time sampling?
Important behaviours may be missed if they do not occur at the set time interval
What is inter observer reliability?
The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in the observation of behaviour
What is a self report technique?
Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic
What are the two types of self report measures?
Questionnaires and interviews
What is a questionnaire?
A set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers
What are the two types of questions?
Open and closed questions
Explain what an open question is and what type of data it produces
-Open questions are questions for which there is no fixed response and respondents can answer in any way they wish
-Qualitative data
Explain what a closed question is and what type of data it produces
-Closed questions are questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question setter
-Quantitative data
What are the strengths and weaknesses of qualitative data?
-Strength- More detailed information
-Weakness- Hard to analyse the data
What are the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative data?
-Strength- Easier to analyse the data
-Weakness- The data is not detailed enough
What are the three main types of scales associated with closed questions?
-Fixed choice question
-Likert scale
-Rating scale
5 points
What are the common errors in question design?
-Overuse of jargon
-Emotive language
-Leading questions
-Double-barrelled questions
-Double negatives
What is meant by jargon?
Technical terms that are only familiar to those within a specialised field or area
What are leading questions?
A question that guides the respondent to a particular answer
What are double-barrelled questions?
When there are two questions in one
What are double negatives?
-A statement containing two negative elements
-E.g. I am not unhappy
What is response bias?
When respondents reply in a similar way
What form of response bias is associated to questionnaires?
Acquiescence bias
What is acquiescence bias?
This is the tendency to agree with items on a questionnaire regardless of the content of the question
What type of demand characteristic is associated with questionnaires?
Social desirability bias
What is social desirability bias?
When the answer of respondents is influenced by their desire to portray themselves in a certain way
3 points
Evaluate the strengths of questionnaires
-Cost effective as they can gather large amounts of data quickly as they can be distributed to large amounts of people quickly
-It can be completed without the presence of a researcher
-The data produced is usually simple to analyse
2 points
Evaluate the limitations of questionnaires
-The responses given may not always be truthful because of social desirability bias
-They often produce response bias as respondents may complete the questionnaire too quickly and fail to read the question properly
Define the term interview
A live encounter face to face or over the phone where the interviewer asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee’s thoughts and/or experiences.
What are the three types of interview?
Structured, unstructured, and semi-structured
What is a structured interview?
An interview where the questions are decided in advance
2 points
What is an unstructured interview?
-An interview that starts out with some general aims and some possible questions and lets the interviewee’s answers guide the subsequent questions
What is a semi-structured interview?
An interview that combines some pre-determined questions and some questions developed in response to answers given
What is an interview schedule?
A set of pre-set questions for the interviewer to use
Define the term interviewer bias?
Bias that occurs as a result of the interviewer
What is a group interview?
An interview when more than one participant is interviewed at one time
Evaluate the strengths of a structured interview
-High reliability as it is easy to replicate due to the questions being standardised for everyone
-Low interviewer bias as all the interviewees are asked the same questions
-The data is easy to analyse as the results are easily quantifiable (expressed as a number)
Evaluate the limitations of a structured interview
-Mixed validity because the interviewer cannot delve deeper into the interviewee’s thoughts and feelings but can measure what they have intended to measure
-There is high social desirability bias. This is because there is no rapport established between the interviewer and interviewee, so the interviewee is more comfortable with lying
What is mundane realism?
Whether or not the experiment mirrors everyday life
What is temporal validity?
Whether or not studies are applicable to different time periods
What is face validity?
This is when a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what is supposed to measure
What is concurrent validity?
This is the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure that we know to be valid
How can something be checked using concurrent validity? What score shows there is concurrent validity?
-Comparing a new test to an existing test to see if they produce similar results
-Correlation coefficient. For there to be high concurrent validity, the value needs to be over 0.8
What is reliability?
How consistently a method measures something. It relates to our ability to repeat a study and obtain the same results
What are the two methods used to assess internal validity?
The split half method and inter-observer reliability
What is the split half method?
When half the questions are compared with the other half of the questions to check for a similar level of difficulty
What is inter observer reliability?
The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in the observation of behaviour
What are the two methods used to assess external validity?
The test-retest method and replication
What is the test-retest method?
If the same questionnaire/interview is conducted more than once, then the same results should be obtained
What is replication?
An experiment should obtain the same results ,when repeated, if the same standardised procedures are used
3 points
How do you assess reliability, using the test-retest method?
1) Participants do the same test a second time, with the researcher involved
2)The two tests are correlated, comparing the scores
3)The correlation is then checked. Significant correlation indicates a reliable test. Researchers generally accept +0.8 as a reasonable degree of reliability
3 points
How do you assess reliability, using inter-observer reliability?
1)Two observers use the same behavioural categories, which are agreed upon before the observation
2)The 2 observers make independent observations/tallies over a set period of time
3)They then check for agreement between observers. The two observers’ tally chart would be compared to check for agreement
What is a case study?
A logitudinal, in depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, investigation or event
What do case studies involve?And why?
Case studies often the analysis of unusual individuals or events and collecting additional data from family and friends. This is because they provide insights into areas that psychologists could not study through manipulation because it would be unethical to do so
What type of data is collected in a case study?
Qualitative data
When would quantative data be collected in a case study?
If the person or people complete experimental or psychological testing to assess what they are and are not capable of
What is content analysis?
When behaviour is indirectly studied by examining the communications that people produce e.g. spoken interaction, written forms or media
What is coding?
The stage of content analysis in which the communication to be is analysed by identifying each instance of the chosen categories
What is thematic analysis?
Identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. The data is then organised according to these themes
3 points
Evaluate the strengths of content analysis
-It can get around many of the ethical issues normally associated with psychological research
-Its a flexible research method
-It produces data that is high in ecological validity
2 points
Evaluate the limitation of content analysis
-It tells us what rather than why
-It is at risk of observer bias
What are the 4 different types of data
Qualitative, quantitative, primary and secondary
What is qualitative research?
A written description of thoughts, feelings and opinions
What are the pros of qualitative research?
-Detailed information
-Allows participants to more fully record their thoughts
2 points
What are the cons of qualitative research?
-Harder to analyse
-Subjective
What is quantitative data?
Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers
What are the pros of quantitative data?
-Simple to analyse
2 points
What are the cons of quantitative data?
-Less detail
-More objective
What is primary data?
Information obtained first hand by the researcher
What are the pros of primary data?
-The data is authentic
2 points
What are the cons of primary data?
-Time consuming
-Takes up resources
What is secondary data?
Data that has been collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research
3 points
What are the pros of secondary research?
-Inexpensive
-Easily accessible
-Requires minimal effort
What are the cons of secondary research?
-Information may be inaccurate, outdated or incomplete
What is a meta-analysis?
The statistical combination of the results of multiple studies addressing a similar research question
2 points
Explain a meta-analysis
-Researchers may discuss the findings/conclusions. This is known as qualitative analysis
-Researchers may use a quantitative approach and statistically analyse the combined data. This involves calculating an effect size
What is qualitative analysis?
Researchers discussing the findings/conclusions of a study
What is the effect size?
An overall statistical measure of the difference or relationship between variables across a number of studies
2 points
Evaluate the pros of meta-analysis
-It allows us to view data with much more confidence as the research has already been published, so its validity is known
-The data can be generalised to larger populations as it involves using a number of pieces of research. This increases the same sizes
