research methods Flashcards
what is self report
Self-report refers to any data collection techniques in which participants provide information about themselves
The data can be collected by asking people to write about themselves: QUESTIONNAIRES
Or talk about themselves: INTERVIEWS
Self-report methods can be used as part of another method or on as the main research method.
strengths of self report
- Allows participants to describe their own experiences rather than a psychologist inferring this from observing participants.
- Large amounts of data can be collected fairly quickly and cheaply, which can increase representativeness and generalisability.
limitations of self report
- Social desirability bias can occur where participants may lie to present themselves in a socially acceptable manner, this can reduce validity.
- Questions can often be leading. The researcher may be forcing the participant to give a particular reply.
- Questions/scales may be interpreted differently by different participants.
what are questionnaires
Questionnaries are a set of questions that are written down and can be handed to pariticpants to fill out or done over the phone or the internet or even by post
Psychologists use questionnaires to asses thoughts and/or feelings
strengths of questionnaires
- Data can be collected quickly as researchers does not need to be present when they are completed.
- Participants are more likely to be honest compared to interviews as they would feel anonymous.
limitations of questionnaires
- Validity can be low because respondents do not always give truthful answers. They may lie to avoid embarrassment or because they wish to be seen in a good light - social desirability bias.
- Often produce a response bias where respondents reply in a similar way, i.e. always ticking yes or answering at the same end of a rating scale.
what are open questions
Open questions allow the respondent the freedom to respond and give them the opportunity to explain their answer
e.g. why have you chosen to study psychology?
= qualitative data
strengths of open questions
May provide unexpected answers, allowing the researchers to gain new insights into people’s feelings and attitudes.
Better validity as respondents can answer fully rather than being forced to respond in a particular way.
limitations of open questions
- Open questions are very time consuming and expensive to interpret and analyse therefore hard to compare
what are closed questions
Closed questions on the other hand give the respondent a limited range of responses to choose from = quantitative data
strengths of closed questions
They provide quantitative data and so the results can be easily summarised, presented and compared between respondents.
limitations of closed questions
Respondents may be forced to select answers that don’t represent their real thoughts or behaviour, lowering validity.
Participants may often select ‘don’t know’ meaning data collected is not informative.
what is a rating scale
Closed questions can also be in the form of rating scales where the participant has to rate their answers on a scale
what is a likert scale
A likert scale is a closed question where respondents are asked to state on a scale how strongly they agree or disagree with something
what is a fixed choice question
A fixed choice question is a closed question where respondents are required to indicate which options apply to them
what to consider when writing questionnaire
- Clarity – questions should be written so the respondent understands what is being asked. There should be no ambiguity. Double negatives should be avoided, e.g. ‘Are you against banning capital punishment?’ and double-barrelled questions, e.g. ‘Do you suffer from sickness and headaches?’
- Bias – leading questions may encourage a respondent to give a particular answer. There may also be the problem of social desirability bias.
- Analysis – Questions need to written so that the answers are easy to analyse. Open questions make this difficult whereas closed do not.
how to improve validity of questionnaire
Filler questions – it may help to include some irrelevant questions to distract the respondent from the main purpose of the survey – reduces demand characteristics.
Sequence for the questions – start with easy ones and save any anxiety provoking ones until the respondent has relaxed.
Pilot study – questions can be tested on small group so they can be refined in response to any difficulties encountered.
two types of interviews
- Structured interviews: Have pre-set questions
They are like questionnaires that are delivered face to face or over the phone - Unstructured interviews: There are no set questions
There is a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed, and interaction tends to be free-flowing
strengths of structured interviews
Can easily be repeated as the questions are
standardised
Using the same questions reduces the differences between interviewers
weaknesses of structured interviews
The Interviewer’s expectations may influence the answers the interviewee gives (interviewer bias) –low validity
Interviewers cannot deviate from their questions or elaborate on their points
strengths of unstructured interviews
Generally more detailed information can be
obtained from each respondent then in a
structured interview – high validity
Can access information that may not be revealed by predetermined questions
limitations of unstructured interviews
Requires well trained interviewers, which makes it more expensive to produce replicable interviews when compared to structured interviews
More affected by interviewer bias than structured interviews because the interviewer is developing questions on the spot which gives scope for them to ask leading questions – low validity
how to make interviews higher validity
The interviewer may write the responses down or record the interview to analyse later.
To reduce interviewer bias interviews can be standardised using an interview schedule (list of questions that the interviewer intends to cover).
Interviews should be conducted in a quiet room to encourage the interviewee to open up.
Good practice to start with some neutral questions to relax the interviewee.
Interviewees should be reminded that their responses will be kept confidential.
what is an aim
Aims are general statements that describe the purpose of an investigation.
what is an experiment
An experiment involves the manipulation (changing) of an independent variable to see what effect it has on the dependent variable, while at the same time trying to control other variables which might affect the results.
what does the term operationalised mean
stating a clear way how the independent variable is going to be manipulated and how the dependent variable is to be measured.
what is a pilot study
A pilot study is a small-scale trial run of the actual investigation – the investigation might be an experiment or any one of the other methods used by psychologists. They often involve only a small number of participants.
why use a pilot study
The pilot study allows the researcher to identify any potential issues and to modify the design or procedure, saving time and money in the long run.
what are extraneous variables
Extraneous variables are variables that if not kept the same for every participant, may affect the results.
Extraneous variables can be divided into:
Participant variables, e.g. age, gender, IQ, sociability, handedness
Situational variables, e.g. light, noise, temperature of room, distractions
what are confounding variables
Confounding variables are variables that if not controlled throughout the experiment will have an effect on the results (DV) and the experimenter cannot establish cause and effect.
what are demand characteristics
any feature of a procedure that influences a participant to try to guess what a study is about and look for clues as to how to behave.
how to reduce demand characteristics
controlled through deceiving participants and using a single blind study where the participants are unaware what condition they are in.
what are investigator effects
occur when a researcher unintentionally or unconsciously influences the outcome of the research. This can be through non-verbal communication (e.g. raised eyebrow), physical characteristics (e.g. gender of researcher) or bias in interpretation of data.
how to control investigator effects
using a double blind study where neither the participant nor the researcher knows which condition they are in. Or randomisation where chance is used wherever possible to reduce the researcher’s influence, e.g. randomly generating a list of words for a memory test.
what is meant by standardisation
the process in which procedures used in research are kept the same e.g. standardised instructions
3 diff types of experimental design
independent groups - participants only take part in one condition of the experiment (i.e. 2 separate groups)
Repeated Measures Design - participants take part in both conditions of the experiment (1 group)
Matched Pairs Design - Participants are matched on variables relevant to the experiment e.g. gender. One participant from each pair are then allocated to a different condition
independent groups design strengths and weaknesses
No order effects (practice, fatigue, boredom) as participants only take part in one condition
less chance of demand characteristics
Any differences between conditions could be due to participant variables, e.g. one group could do better because they are more intelligent – control by randomly allocating to groups
To address the problem of participant variables participants should be randomly allocated to the different experimental conditions. This attempts to evenly distribute participant characteristics across the conditions using random techniques, e.g. picking pieces of paper out of a hat.
Less economical as twice as many participants are needed in comparison to repeated measures
repeated measures design strengths and weaknesses
Any differences between conditions are likely to be due to changes in the IV and not due to participant variables.
Fewer participants need to be recruited, as they are used twice.
Order effects may occur (e.g. practice, fatigue, boredom) as participants take part in all conditions.
May see more demand characteristics as participants are more likely to work the aim if they take part in both conditions.
what are order effects
occurs when participants’ responses in the various conditions are affected by the order of conditions to which they were exposed.
* Boredom Effect: Deterioration of performance across conditions as PPs become tired or bored.
* Practice Effect: Improvement across conditions through familiarity of the task or environment.
- problem in repeated measures design
how to reduce order effects
Counterbalancing is an important control of order effects when using repeated measures. It reduces order effects as half participants do condition A then B and the other half do condition B then A.
Counterbalancing does not remove or prevent order effects, but attempts to balance out the effects of order between the two conditions.
matched pairs design strengths and weaknesses
There are no order effects as participants only take part in one condition.
Participant variables between conditions are reduced as participants have been matched.
Reducing Demand Characteristics
It is time consuming and expensive to match up participants.
Participants can never be matched exactly.
whats a lab experiment
Involves the manipulation of an IV and conducted under highly controlled conditions. A laboratory is any environment where variables can be well controlled.
field experiment
Involves the manipulation of an IV but the experiment is conducted in ‘the field’/a real world situation. Participants are often unaware that they are being studied.
natural experiment
The researcher takes advantage of a pre-existing IV which would have changed even if the experimenter was not studying it.
quasi experiment
Have an IV that is based on an existing difference between people, e.g. age or gender. No one has manipulated this variable, it simply exists. Participants may be tested in the field or a lab.
target population
the group of people from whom the sample is drawn.
opportunity sampling
Consists of taking the sample from people who are available at the time of the study and fit the criteria you are looking for
volunteer sampling
Consists of participants becoming part of a study because they volunteer when asked or in response to an advert or poster
random sampling
Every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen. This involves identifying everyone in the target population and then selecting the number of participants you need in a way that gives everyone in the population an equal chance of being picked - random number generator
systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is when every nth member of the target population is selected, e.g. every 5th person on a register
stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves classifying the population into groups (strata) and then choosing a sample which consists of participants from each group in the same proportions as they are in the population. Selection from the strata is done using a random technique.
stratified strengths and weaknesses
Likely to be more representative than other methods because there is a proportional and randomly selected representation of subgroups.
Very time consuming to identify subgroups and the subgroups cannot reflect all the ways that people are different, so complete representation of the target population is not possible.
opportunity strength and weaknesses
Quick and easy to select the sample as you simply take advantage of the people that are around you when you conduct your research.
By only using those who were present or available at the time of the study could lead to a biased sample so unlikely to be representative of a target population.
random strength and weakness
Everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected. This means the sample should be representative of target population as all participants are selected by chance.
Need to have a list of all members of the population and then contact all of those randomly selected, which may take some time.
systematic strength and weakness
Unbiased as participants are selected using an objective system leading to a representative sample.
Not truly unbiased/random unless you select a number using a random method and start with this person, and then select every nth person.
volunteer strength and weakness
May be a relatively easy way of achieving a sample and is useful when the research requires a specific type of participant, e.g. left handed.
Unlikely to be representative of the target population. The type of people who volunteer may have more time, more extroverted, etc., leading to volunteer bias.
temporal validity
whether findings from a particular study, or concept within a particular theory, hold true over time
quantitative data
behaviour is measured in numbers or quantities e.g. closed question questionnaires
qualitative data
Information that cannot be readily counted. It is expressed in words, rather than numbers or statistics, and may take the form of a written description of the thoughts, feelings and opinions of participants e.g. open question questionnaire
quantitative strengths and weaknesses
Allows for statistical analysis and comparisons to be made.
Data are ‘objective’ and ‘scientific’, so easier to establish reliability of results.
Numbers are often produced without interpretation as it ignores why behaviour occurred.
People may seen as nothing more than a number in a reductionist approach.
qualitative data strengths and weaknesses
The data is in-depth and rich so helps to increase the external validity of findings.
Helps us to understand why people behave in a particular way.
Interpreting this data is open to researcher bias and subjectivity.
Difficult to interpret and make statistical comparisons.
primary data
Refers to original data that has been collected specifically for the purpose of the investigation by the researcher. It is data that arrives first-hand from the participants themselves. Data which is gathered by conducting an experiment, questionnaire, interview or observation would be classed as primary data.
secondary data
Data that has been collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research. This data already exists before the psychologist begins their investigation. Secondary data includes data that may be located in journal articles, books, websites and government records.
primary data strengths and weaknesses
The data collection can be designed so it fits the aim and hypothesis of the study.
It is very lengthy and is therefore an expensive process to collect the data.
secondary data strengths and weaknesses
Easier and cheaper to access someone else’s data.
The data may not exactly fit the needs of the study or may be of a poor quality such as being outdated or incomplete.
meta analysis
A research method that uses secondary data is meta-analysis. The data from a large number of studies, which have involved the same research questions and methods of research are combined. The researchers simply discusses the findings and conclusions and shows the overall trends across a number of studies.
meta analysis strengths and weaknesses
+ Increases the validity of the conclusions drawn because they are based on a wider sample of participants.
- May be prone to publication bias where researchers may not select studies with negative or non-significant results.
what is a case study
A case study involves the detailed study of a single individual, institution or event.
Case studies often involve analysis of unusual individuals or events, such as a person with a rare disorder.
Case studies use information from a range of sources, such as from the person concerned and also from their family and friends. In addition, many techniques may be used, e.g. interviews, observation, IQ tests, personality tests, questionnaire and the experimental methods.
Case studies are usually carried out in the real world.
Case studies are generally longitudinal; they follow the individual or group over an extended period of time.
strengths and weaknesses of case studies
o Rich in-depth detailed data is gathered
o Useful for investigating behaviour that is rare or unusual as it wouldn’t be ethical to generate such conditionings experimentally
o Difficult to generalise from individual cases as each one is unique
o Low in validity as case studies involve the recollection of past events which may be inaccurate
o As unique cases are studied they are difficult to replicate so low in reliability
o When researchers study participants or one participant over time they end up becoming bias/subjective because they get to know participant quite well and therefore their objectivity is flawed
what is a naturalistic observation - s+w
People observed are in their everyday (natural) setting
+ High ecological validity as behaviour is studied in an environment where it would normally occur. This means the results can be generalised to everyday life.
- Lack of control over extraneous variables means replication is difficult
what is controlled observation s+w
Observations can take place where some variables are controlled and manipulated by the experimenter
+ Control of extraneous variables which means replication can occur.
-Low in ecological validity as takes place in an artificial environment which means results cannot be generalised to everyday life.
what is covert observation s+w
A type of observational study whereby the participants are not fully aware that they are being studied, e.g. one-way mirrors
+ Participants will not respond to social desirability bias as they do not know they are being observed. This increases validity.
-Is unethical as you do not have consent and you may be invading privacy.
what is over observation - s+w
When the observer is clearly in the view of the participants, and they are aware that they are being observed
+ Overt observations are ethical as participants are aware that they are being observed.
-As participants know they are being observed they may respond in a socially desirable way lowering validity.
what is participant observation - s+w
The researcher is also a participant in the activity they are observing
+ The researcher can experience the situation as the participants do; giving them increased insight into the lives of the people being studied, increasing the validity of the study.
-The researcher may lose objectivity as they identify too strongly with the group they are observing
what is non-participant observation - s+w
The researcher does not join in with the activity being observed
+ Allow the psychologist to maintain an objective psychological distance from their participants, increasing validity.
-May lose valuable insight as they are too far removed from people and behaviour they are studying.
what is unstructured observation - s+w
Involves the researchers writing down all the behaviour they can see. May be more useful for small scale observations.
+ Rich in detail as produce qualitative data.
-May be prone to observer bias as the researcher may only record behaviours that ‘catch their eye’ and these may not be the most important or useful.
-Qualitative data gathered may be hard to analyse.
what is structured observation - s+w
Structures observations allow researcher to quantify their observations using a pre-determined list of behaviours and sampling methods
The researchers design a behaviour checklist to record their behaviour – could conduct a pilot study
+ Using a behavioural checklist makes the recording of data easier and more systematic.
+ Data is likely to be quantitative so can be analysed easier and comparisons can be made.
- Structured observations rely on a list of predetermined categories and the categories may not cover all the behaviours observed.
what is time sampling - s+w
Recording behaviours in a given time frame. For example, noting what a target individual is doing every 30 seconds. At that time the observer may tick one or more categories from a checklist.
+ Effective in reducing the number of observations that have to be made.
-Behaviour that is sampled may be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole as important behaviour may be missed between time intervals.
what is event sampling - s+w
Involves counting the number of times a particular behaviour (the ‘event’) occurs in a target individual or group
+ Useful when the target behaviour or event happens quite infrequently and could be missed if time sampling was used.
-If the specified event is too complex, the observer may overlook important details if using event sampling.
what is inter-observer reliability
Inter-observer reliability in observational research refers to the extent to which different observers are able to observe and rate (or code) the same behaviour in the same way.
how would inter-observer reliability be carried out
- Observers should familiarise themselves with the behavioural categories and ensure they are fully operationalised
- Observe behaviour at the same time, perhaps use a pilot study beforehand
- Observers should compare their data and discuss any differences
- Train observers beforehand
- Observers should analyse their data using a correlation to get an inter-observer reliability figure. An observation has inter-observer reliability if two observers’ agreements are higher than 0.8
what is peer review
Before a piece of research can become part of a journal it must be subject to a process of peer review. Before publication all aspects of the written investigation must be scrutinised by a small group of usually two or three experts in the particular field. These experts should be objective and unknown to the researcher.
aims of peer review
- To validate quality and relevance of research:
All elements of research are assessed for quality and accuracy: the formulation of hypotheses, the methodology chosen, the statistical tests used, and the conclusions drawn. - To suggest amendments or improvements:
Reviews may suggest minor revisions of the work or even that the work is inappropriate for publication and should be withdrawn. - To uphold the integrity of the academic journal -
Helps ensure that any research paper published in a well-respected journal has integrity and can, therefore, be taken seriously by fellow researchers and by lay people.
evaluation of peer review
Reviewers may use the veil of anonymity to settle old scores or bury rival research.
Journals tend to publish positive results which leads to misperception of true facts.
Once research is published the results remain in public view even if they have subsequently found to be fraudulent or the result of poor research practices.
Peer review promotes and maintains high standards in research, which has implications for society and funding allocation so that it is assigned to high quality research.
Helps to prevent scientific fraud, as submitted work is scrutinised.
psych research for economy - attachment
Monotropy – primary attachment is mother, the less the separation, the better, therefore women were encouraged to not work and stay home to look after child, and this means there are negative implications to the economy as less people are working. However, there has been a shift since Bowlby’s research has been conducted as more women are working having positive implications for the economy.
psych research for economy - memory
Eye-witness testimony has been found to be inaccurate due to post event discussion, anxiety and leading questions and this will have negative implications on economy as it leads to false convictions which is costly as putting someone in prison is expensive and there will need to be some sort of compensation for wrongly accusing them. Improving accuracy of EWT through cognitive interview will have positive implications to economy as there will be less false convictions, however it is expensive to train interviewers.
psych research for economy - psychopathology
Drug therapies – if cheaper drugs work, they go to work and so economy is boosted
what is correlation
Correlation is a statistical technique that can tell us if there is a relationship between two continuous variables. Correlations use quantitative data gathered by other research methods, e.g. self-report.
strengths and weaknesses of correlational analysis
No manipulation of the variables so useful when manipulation is practically or ethically impossible
Can be used as a starting point to an investigation and may suggest ideas for future research
cannot determine cause and effect as only show a relationship between variables - this is because another untested variable could be causing the relationship between the two co-variables, known as an intervening variable.
Technique is subject to any problems associated with the method used to collect data (e.g. low in internal/external validity)
explain process of content analysis
- familiarise with data
- create a coding system
- systematically re-analyse data
- tally any examples of a code
strengths and limitations content analysis
Offers a method to analyse a variety of forms of data including media and self-report methods so that insights into cultural trends and experiences can be understood.
The identification of suitable themes and codes is subjective and decided by the researcher alone, meaning that conclusions lack any scrutiny or objectivity
thematic analysis
The analysis of qualitative data often starts with collecting the data, and transcribing it (writing it out).
The researcher familiarises themselves with it –reading it several times.
The researcher looks for recurring themes and patterns which run through and link the data.
The researcher provides examples to illustrate the themes, and then writes a report.
strengths and weaknesses thematic analysis
- detail that quantitative data misses
- This approach is flexible so that the analysis can be accommodated to the data as themes or codes do not have to be pre-defined.
- time consuming
- unscientific - subjective
what are ethical issues?
Ethical issues arise in Psychology when a conflict exists between participants’ rights and researchers’ needs to gain valuable and meaningful findings. This conflict has implications for the safety and wellbeing of participants
what are the ethical issues that need to be considered?
- informed consent
- deception
- privacy & confidentiality
- protection from harm
- right to withdraw
what is informed consent and how do we deal with this ethical issue
informed consent involves making participants aware of the aims of the research, the procedures, their rights e.g. right to withdraw and what their data will be used for
- participants should sign a consent form detailing all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate - if under 16 a parental signature is required
what is deception and how do we deal with this ethical issue
Deception means deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation. However, there are occasions when deception can be justified if it does not cause the participants distress.
- At the end of the study participants should receive a full debrief where they are made aware of the true aims of the study and about all conditions of the experiment.
what is right to withdraw and how do we deal with this ethical issue
We must make participants aware that they are free to leave a study at any time, even if we’ve paid them! They can also refuse permission for their data to be used.
- Participants must be told at the beginning of a study and reminded during the debrief of their right to withdraw.
what is protection from harm and how do we deal with this ethical issue
Participants should be protected from physical or psychological harm.
Psychological harm includes embarrassment, stress or under pressure.
Any risk should be no more than could be expected in the course of normal daily life.
- At the end of study participants should receive a full debrief.
- Participants must be reminded of their right to withdraw.
- The researcher should provide counselling where stress or embarrassment has occurred.
what is privacy and confidentiality and how do we deal with this issue
Participants have the right to privacy and their personal information should not be invaded.
Any personal data should be kept confidential and is protected under the Data Protection Act.
- Privacy – participants should only be observed in public areas and not private, e.g. their homes or in the toilet.
- Confidentiality – Use a number or initials to keep participants data confidential.
what is reliability
It is important that psychology research can easily be repeated and yield similar results each time. Reliability refers to the extent to which the measurement of a particular behaviour is consistent.
how can we know if something is reliable
a strong positive correlation between the results of the same test will indicate reliability.
what is the test-retest method - disadvantage and advantage
The test-retest method involves administering an entire test to a participant, waiting for them to ‘forget’ the questions (which could take several months), and then readministering the test. If the results from both presentations of the test significantly positively correlate then it is a reliable test. The disadvantages of the test-retest method are that it takes a long time for results to be obtained, and if too long an interval has been used then the participant may have changed in themselves which may mean a test is declared unreliable when it is in fact reliable. The advantage is that every question is checked for reliability.
what is validity
Validity refers to the extent to which a research technique actually measures the behaviour it is claimed to measure. For example, a relationship questionnaire is not a valid measure of aggression.
what is internal validity
Internal validity means, “Does this test accurately measure what it is supposed to?” - if the results produced are as a result of manipulation of the IV on DV instead of confounding variables
what is external validity
External validity means, “Can the results from this test be generalised to populations and situations beyond the situation or population being measured?”
population validity definition
refers to the extent to which the results can be generalised to groups of people other than the sample of participants used.
ecological validity definition
refers to the extent to which the task used in a research study is representative of real life.
what is face validity
Face validity is a simple way of assessing whether or not something measures what it claims to measure, which is concerned with its face value.
what is concurrent validity
is a comparison between two tests of a particular behaviour. One test has already been established as a valid measure of the behaviour, and the other test is the new one. If the results from both old and new tests significantly correlate then the new test is valid.
what is predictive validity
the ability of a test or other measurement to predict a future outcome.
what are the features of science?
- objectivity and the empirical method
- replicability
- falsifiability
- theory construction and hypothesis testing
- Paradigms and paradigm shifts
what is objectivity and the empirical method
Psychologists should aim to be objective in their work. This means not letting their personal biases affect the results of studies. The research method which tends to be the most objective is the laboratory experiment, as the impact of variables is closely controlled. The empirical method refers to using observable evidence to draw conclusions and propose theories.
e.g. Bandura’s research on Bobo dolls conducted in a lab
what is replicability
This is the ability to repeat psychological studies in order to check that the findings are reliable. This is an important aspect of science, as it means that the findings can be repeated at different times, in different places, with different participants. If similar results are seen each time, the results are generalisable, and the validity is strengthened.
e.g. Asch experiment repeated by Perrin and Spencer
what is falsifiability
Something is considered scientific if in principle it was possible to establish as false
e.g Freud’s psychodynamic approach many concepts are unfalsifiable as they cannot be tested meaning we are unable to discover whether they are right or wrong
what is theory construction and hypothesis testing
A theory is a set of general laws or rules to explain events or behaviours.
This forms the basis of a hypothesis- a testable prediction of what will happen in a research study investigating the theory. Once the study is conducted, the hypothesis can be accepted or rejected, leading to acceptance of the theory or modification of the theory. This process is known as deduction.
e.g. localisation of function of the brain suggests different parts of the brain perform different functions and are involved in different parts of the body - tested by Peterson - theory = supported
what are paradigms and paradigm shifts
A paradigm consists of the basic assumptions, ways of thinking, and methods of study that are commonly accepted by members of a discipline or group.
A paradigm shift is an important change in the basic concepts and experimental practices of a scientific discipline.
e.g. behaviourism in 1920s onwards, 1970s paradigm shift – the cognitive
revolution.
purpose of an abstract
- brief summary of report around 150-200 words
- includes aims, hypotheses, method/procedures, results and conclusions
- psychologists read lots of abstracts to consider what reports are worth further reading
purpose of an introduction
- literature review of general area of research detailing relevant theories, concepts and studies related to current study
- should follow logical progression - begin broad and gradually get more specific until aims and hypotheses are tested
purpose of method
· The method section describes how the study was conducted
· It should have enough information to allow the study to be replicated
· There are typically 5 sections to the method:
→ Design
→ Sample
→ Materials e.g. questionnaire, word list, consent form, debrief, instruction
→ Procedure
→ ethics
purpose of results
- summarise key findings
- likely to feature descriptive statistics, inferential statistics (level of significance)
- analysis of themes or categories if used qualitative data
purpose of discussion
- summarise results in verbal form not statistical form - discussed in the context of evidence presented in introduction and other research that may be relevant
- discuss limitations and how to address them in future study
- wider implications of research e.g. real world application
referencing section of a scientific report
= full details of any source material cited in a report
FORMAT:
author(s), date, article title, journal name, volume, page numbers
when to use a histogram
when the data is continuous not discrete
when to use a scattergram
Scattergrams are used when doing correlational analysis and do not depict differences but associations between co-variables.
when to use bar chart
Bar charts are used when data are divided into categories.
difference between descriptive statistics and inferential statistics
Descriptive statistics:
Allow us to draw basic conclusions through use of graphs, charts, tables, etc; merely presents data for basic analysis
Inferential statistics:
Allow us to say whether any difference/relationship is significant (in other words, unlikely to have occurred by chance)
what is nominal data
- Data is represented in the form of categories
e.g. asking everyone in class if they like psychology - yes in one group, no in another - Nominal data is discrete in that one item can only appear in one of the categories
what is ordinal data
- Data is ordered in some way
- there aren’t fixed intervals between data
e.g. asking people to rate how much they like psychology on a scale of 1-10 where 1 is not at all and 10 is
what is interval data
Interval level data is data measured in fixed units with equal distance between points on the scale. For example, temperature measured in centigrade.
what is type 1 and type 2 errors
Type 1 error
Rejecting a null hypothesis/accepting the alternative hypothesis when we should not. In other words, claiming results are significant when actually they aren’t!
Type 2 error
Accepting a null hypothesis/rejecting the alternative hypothesis when we should not. In other words, claiming results are not significant when actually they are!
