research methods Flashcards
what is self report
Self-report refers to any data collection techniques in which participants provide information about themselves
The data can be collected by asking people to write about themselves: QUESTIONNAIRES
Or talk about themselves: INTERVIEWS
Self-report methods can be used as part of another method or on as the main research method.
strengths of self report
- Allows participants to describe their own experiences rather than a psychologist inferring this from observing participants.
- Large amounts of data can be collected fairly quickly and cheaply, which can increase representativeness and generalisability.
limitations of self report
- Social desirability bias can occur where participants may lie to present themselves in a socially acceptable manner, this can reduce validity.
- Questions can often be leading. The researcher may be forcing the participant to give a particular reply.
- Questions/scales may be interpreted differently by different participants.
what are questionnaires
Questionnaries are a set of questions that are written down and can be handed to pariticpants to fill out or done over the phone or the internet or even by post
Psychologists use questionnaires to asses thoughts and/or feelings
strengths of questionnaires
- Data can be collected quickly as researchers does not need to be present when they are completed.
- Participants are more likely to be honest compared to interviews as they would feel anonymous.
limitations of questionnaires
- Validity can be low because respondents do not always give truthful answers. They may lie to avoid embarrassment or because they wish to be seen in a good light - social desirability bias.
- Often produce a response bias where respondents reply in a similar way, i.e. always ticking yes or answering at the same end of a rating scale.
what are open questions
Open questions allow the respondent the freedom to respond and give them the opportunity to explain their answer
e.g. why have you chosen to study psychology?
= qualitative data
strengths of open questions
May provide unexpected answers, allowing the researchers to gain new insights into people’s feelings and attitudes.
Better validity as respondents can answer fully rather than being forced to respond in a particular way.
limitations of open questions
- Open questions are very time consuming and expensive to interpret and analyse therefore hard to compare
what are closed questions
Closed questions on the other hand give the respondent a limited range of responses to choose from = quantitative data
strengths of closed questions
They provide quantitative data and so the results can be easily summarised, presented and compared between respondents.
limitations of closed questions
Respondents may be forced to select answers that don’t represent their real thoughts or behaviour, lowering validity.
Participants may often select ‘don’t know’ meaning data collected is not informative.
what is a rating scale
Closed questions can also be in the form of rating scales where the participant has to rate their answers on a scale
what is a likert scale
A likert scale is a closed question where respondents are asked to state on a scale how strongly they agree or disagree with something
what is a fixed choice question
A fixed choice question is a closed question where respondents are required to indicate which options apply to them
what to consider when writing questionnaire
- Clarity – questions should be written so the respondent understands what is being asked. There should be no ambiguity. Double negatives should be avoided, e.g. ‘Are you against banning capital punishment?’ and double-barrelled questions, e.g. ‘Do you suffer from sickness and headaches?’
- Bias – leading questions may encourage a respondent to give a particular answer. There may also be the problem of social desirability bias.
- Analysis – Questions need to written so that the answers are easy to analyse. Open questions make this difficult whereas closed do not.
how to improve validity of questionnaire
Filler questions – it may help to include some irrelevant questions to distract the respondent from the main purpose of the survey – reduces demand characteristics.
Sequence for the questions – start with easy ones and save any anxiety provoking ones until the respondent has relaxed.
Pilot study – questions can be tested on small group so they can be refined in response to any difficulties encountered.
two types of interviews
- Structured interviews: Have pre-set questions
They are like questionnaires that are delivered face to face or over the phone - Unstructured interviews: There are no set questions
There is a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed, and interaction tends to be free-flowing
strengths of structured interviews
Can easily be repeated as the questions are
standardised
Using the same questions reduces the differences between interviewers
weaknesses of structured interviews
The Interviewer’s expectations may influence the answers the interviewee gives (interviewer bias) –low validity
Interviewers cannot deviate from their questions or elaborate on their points
strengths of unstructured interviews
Generally more detailed information can be
obtained from each respondent then in a
structured interview – high validity
Can access information that may not be revealed by predetermined questions
limitations of unstructured interviews
Requires well trained interviewers, which makes it more expensive to produce replicable interviews when compared to structured interviews
More affected by interviewer bias than structured interviews because the interviewer is developing questions on the spot which gives scope for them to ask leading questions – low validity
how to make interviews higher validity
The interviewer may write the responses down or record the interview to analyse later.
To reduce interviewer bias interviews can be standardised using an interview schedule (list of questions that the interviewer intends to cover).
Interviews should be conducted in a quiet room to encourage the interviewee to open up.
Good practice to start with some neutral questions to relax the interviewee.
Interviewees should be reminded that their responses will be kept confidential.
what is an aim
Aims are general statements that describe the purpose of an investigation.
what is an experiment
An experiment involves the manipulation (changing) of an independent variable to see what effect it has on the dependent variable, while at the same time trying to control other variables which might affect the results.
what does the term operationalised mean
stating a clear way how the independent variable is going to be manipulated and how the dependent variable is to be measured.
what is a pilot study
A pilot study is a small-scale trial run of the actual investigation – the investigation might be an experiment or any one of the other methods used by psychologists. They often involve only a small number of participants.
why use a pilot study
The pilot study allows the researcher to identify any potential issues and to modify the design or procedure, saving time and money in the long run.
what are extraneous variables
Extraneous variables are variables that if not kept the same for every participant, may affect the results.
Extraneous variables can be divided into:
Participant variables, e.g. age, gender, IQ, sociability, handedness
Situational variables, e.g. light, noise, temperature of room, distractions
what are confounding variables
Confounding variables are variables that if not controlled throughout the experiment will have an effect on the results (DV) and the experimenter cannot establish cause and effect.
what are demand characteristics
any feature of a procedure that influences a participant to try to guess what a study is about and look for clues as to how to behave.
how to reduce demand characteristics
controlled through deceiving participants and using a single blind study where the participants are unaware what condition they are in.
what are investigator effects
occur when a researcher unintentionally or unconsciously influences the outcome of the research. This can be through non-verbal communication (e.g. raised eyebrow), physical characteristics (e.g. gender of researcher) or bias in interpretation of data.
how to control investigator effects
using a double blind study where neither the participant nor the researcher knows which condition they are in. Or randomisation where chance is used wherever possible to reduce the researcher’s influence, e.g. randomly generating a list of words for a memory test.
what is meant by standardisation
the process in which procedures used in research are kept the same e.g. standardised instructions
3 diff types of experimental design
independent groups - participants only take part in one condition of the experiment (i.e. 2 separate groups)
Repeated Measures Design - participants take part in both conditions of the experiment (1 group)
Matched Pairs Design - Participants are matched on variables relevant to the experiment e.g. gender. One participant from each pair are then allocated to a different condition
independent groups design strengths and weaknesses
No order effects (practice, fatigue, boredom) as participants only take part in one condition
less chance of demand characteristics
Any differences between conditions could be due to participant variables, e.g. one group could do better because they are more intelligent – control by randomly allocating to groups
To address the problem of participant variables participants should be randomly allocated to the different experimental conditions. This attempts to evenly distribute participant characteristics across the conditions using random techniques, e.g. picking pieces of paper out of a hat.
Less economical as twice as many participants are needed in comparison to repeated measures
repeated measures design strengths and weaknesses
Any differences between conditions are likely to be due to changes in the IV and not due to participant variables.
Fewer participants need to be recruited, as they are used twice.
Order effects may occur (e.g. practice, fatigue, boredom) as participants take part in all conditions.
May see more demand characteristics as participants are more likely to work the aim if they take part in both conditions.
what are order effects
occurs when participants’ responses in the various conditions are affected by the order of conditions to which they were exposed.
* Boredom Effect: Deterioration of performance across conditions as PPs become tired or bored.
* Practice Effect: Improvement across conditions through familiarity of the task or environment.
- problem in repeated measures design
how to reduce order effects
Counterbalancing is an important control of order effects when using repeated measures. It reduces order effects as half participants do condition A then B and the other half do condition B then A.
Counterbalancing does not remove or prevent order effects, but attempts to balance out the effects of order between the two conditions.
matched pairs design strengths and weaknesses
There are no order effects as participants only take part in one condition.
Participant variables between conditions are reduced as participants have been matched.
Reducing Demand Characteristics
It is time consuming and expensive to match up participants.
Participants can never be matched exactly.
whats a lab experiment
Involves the manipulation of an IV and conducted under highly controlled conditions. A laboratory is any environment where variables can be well controlled.
field experiment
Involves the manipulation of an IV but the experiment is conducted in ‘the field’/a real world situation. Participants are often unaware that they are being studied.
natural experiment
The researcher takes advantage of a pre-existing IV which would have changed even if the experimenter was not studying it.
quasi experiment
Have an IV that is based on an existing difference between people, e.g. age or gender. No one has manipulated this variable, it simply exists. Participants may be tested in the field or a lab.
target population
the group of people from whom the sample is drawn.
opportunity sampling
Consists of taking the sample from people who are available at the time of the study and fit the criteria you are looking for
volunteer sampling
Consists of participants becoming part of a study because they volunteer when asked or in response to an advert or poster
random sampling
Every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen. This involves identifying everyone in the target population and then selecting the number of participants you need in a way that gives everyone in the population an equal chance of being picked - random number generator
systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is when every nth member of the target population is selected, e.g. every 5th person on a register
stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves classifying the population into groups (strata) and then choosing a sample which consists of participants from each group in the same proportions as they are in the population. Selection from the strata is done using a random technique.
stratified strengths and weaknesses
Likely to be more representative than other methods because there is a proportional and randomly selected representation of subgroups.
Very time consuming to identify subgroups and the subgroups cannot reflect all the ways that people are different, so complete representation of the target population is not possible.
