research methods Flashcards
what is self report
Self-report refers to any data collection techniques in which participants provide information about themselves
The data can be collected by asking people to write about themselves: QUESTIONNAIRES
Or talk about themselves: INTERVIEWS
Self-report methods can be used as part of another method or on as the main research method.
strengths of self report
- Allows participants to describe their own experiences rather than a psychologist inferring this from observing participants.
- Large amounts of data can be collected fairly quickly and cheaply, which can increase representativeness and generalisability.
limitations of self report
- Social desirability bias can occur where participants may lie to present themselves in a socially acceptable manner, this can reduce validity.
- Questions can often be leading. The researcher may be forcing the participant to give a particular reply.
- Questions/scales may be interpreted differently by different participants.
what are questionnaires
Questionnaries are a set of questions that are written down and can be handed to pariticpants to fill out or done over the phone or the internet or even by post
Psychologists use questionnaires to asses thoughts and/or feelings
strengths of questionnaires
- Data can be collected quickly as researchers does not need to be present when they are completed.
- Participants are more likely to be honest compared to interviews as they would feel anonymous.
limitations of questionnaires
- Validity can be low because respondents do not always give truthful answers. They may lie to avoid embarrassment or because they wish to be seen in a good light - social desirability bias.
- Often produce a response bias where respondents reply in a similar way, i.e. always ticking yes or answering at the same end of a rating scale.
what are open questions
Open questions allow the respondent the freedom to respond and give them the opportunity to explain their answer
e.g. why have you chosen to study psychology?
= qualitative data
strengths of open questions
May provide unexpected answers, allowing the researchers to gain new insights into people’s feelings and attitudes.
Better validity as respondents can answer fully rather than being forced to respond in a particular way.
limitations of open questions
- Open questions are very time consuming and expensive to interpret and analyse therefore hard to compare
what are closed questions
Closed questions on the other hand give the respondent a limited range of responses to choose from = quantitative data
strengths of closed questions
They provide quantitative data and so the results can be easily summarised, presented and compared between respondents.
limitations of closed questions
Respondents may be forced to select answers that don’t represent their real thoughts or behaviour, lowering validity.
Participants may often select ‘don’t know’ meaning data collected is not informative.
what is a rating scale
Closed questions can also be in the form of rating scales where the participant has to rate their answers on a scale
what is a likert scale
A likert scale is a closed question where respondents are asked to state on a scale how strongly they agree or disagree with something
what is a fixed choice question
A fixed choice question is a closed question where respondents are required to indicate which options apply to them
what to consider when writing questionnaire
- Clarity – questions should be written so the respondent understands what is being asked. There should be no ambiguity. Double negatives should be avoided, e.g. ‘Are you against banning capital punishment?’ and double-barrelled questions, e.g. ‘Do you suffer from sickness and headaches?’
- Bias – leading questions may encourage a respondent to give a particular answer. There may also be the problem of social desirability bias.
- Analysis – Questions need to written so that the answers are easy to analyse. Open questions make this difficult whereas closed do not.
how to improve validity of questionnaire
Filler questions – it may help to include some irrelevant questions to distract the respondent from the main purpose of the survey – reduces demand characteristics.
Sequence for the questions – start with easy ones and save any anxiety provoking ones until the respondent has relaxed.
Pilot study – questions can be tested on small group so they can be refined in response to any difficulties encountered.
two types of interviews
- Structured interviews: Have pre-set questions
They are like questionnaires that are delivered face to face or over the phone - Unstructured interviews: There are no set questions
There is a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed, and interaction tends to be free-flowing
strengths of structured interviews
Can easily be repeated as the questions are
standardised
Using the same questions reduces the differences between interviewers
weaknesses of structured interviews
The Interviewer’s expectations may influence the answers the interviewee gives (interviewer bias) –low validity
Interviewers cannot deviate from their questions or elaborate on their points
strengths of unstructured interviews
Generally more detailed information can be
obtained from each respondent then in a
structured interview – high validity
Can access information that may not be revealed by predetermined questions
limitations of unstructured interviews
Requires well trained interviewers, which makes it more expensive to produce replicable interviews when compared to structured interviews
More affected by interviewer bias than structured interviews because the interviewer is developing questions on the spot which gives scope for them to ask leading questions – low validity
how to make interviews higher validity
The interviewer may write the responses down or record the interview to analyse later.
To reduce interviewer bias interviews can be standardised using an interview schedule (list of questions that the interviewer intends to cover).
Interviews should be conducted in a quiet room to encourage the interviewee to open up.
Good practice to start with some neutral questions to relax the interviewee.
Interviewees should be reminded that their responses will be kept confidential.
what is an aim
Aims are general statements that describe the purpose of an investigation.