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IB Psychology > Research methods > Flashcards

Research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Definition of psychology

A

Psychology is the study of the mind through the observation of mental processes and behavior.

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2
Q

Empirical research

A

Research hypotheses which tests relationships between variables.

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3
Q

Hypotheses

Variables - Quantitative method

A

A testable statement of what the researcher predicts will be the outcome of the study which is usually
based on established theory.

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4
Q

The scientific method

A
  • Is a method of gathering data and processing information
  • It provides well-defined steps to standardize how scientific knowledge is gathered through a logical, rational, problem-solving method.
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5
Q

Independent variable

Variables

A

Variable that is manipulated by the experimenter

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6
Q

Dependent variable

Variables

A

Variable that changes as a result of the manipulation by the experimenter- the one that is measured

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7
Q

Confounding/Extraneous variables

Variables

A

Other variables (other than IV and DV) that can interfere in the relationship between the IV and the DV
- This is to ensure that it is the change in the IV that causes the change in the DV

Eliminate them or keep them constant.

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8
Q

Control variable

Variables

A

What is held constant and does not changes

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9
Q

Variable

Variables

A

Any characteristic that is objectively registered and quantified

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10
Q

Alternative/Experimental Hypothesis

Hypotheses methods - Qualitative methods

A

Also known as the research hypothesis. A hypothesis that states that there will be a
statistically significant relationship between two or more variables.

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11
Q

Two-tailed/Non-directional Hypothesis

Hypotheses methods

A

Predicts that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable, but the direction of the effect is not specified.

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12
Q

One-tailed/Directional Hypothesis

Hypotheses methods - Quantitative method

A

A scientific prediction stating that an effect will occur and whether that effect will specifically increase or specifically decrease, depending on changes to the independent variable

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13
Q

The Null-Hypothesis

Hypotheses methods

A

A hypothesis that says there will be no statistical significance between two variables. It is the
hypothesis that a researcher will try to disprove.

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14
Q

Target Population

A

The group whose behavior the researcher wishes to investigate.

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15
Q

Sample

Sample

A

A group of individuals taking part in the research study / A part of the population
- They are then studied and generalized

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16
Q

Sampling bias

Sample

A

Non-random sampling results in bias where some members of the population are less likely to be included than others. Participant variables also may not be representative & can influence the study’s outcome.

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17
Q

Probability sample

Sample

A

Refers to the selection of a sample from a population, when this selection is based on the principle of randomization, that is, random selection or chance.

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18
Q

Non-probability sample

Sample

A

Method of selecting units from a population using a subjective (i.e. non-random) method.

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19
Q

Sampling frame

Sample

A

A Frame that could be used as a basis for sampling (allows determining Probability of selection) and normally is any list, material or device that delimits, identifies, and allows access to the elements of the Survey population.

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20
Q

Quota sampling

Qualitative Research - Sampling

A

Similar to a stratified sample, but there is no random selection of participants from the population. For example, you want a sample that reflects your country’s population. If your country is 40% of one culture and 60% of another, then the sample would have that same proportion - but they are not chosen randomly. It might be the first 40 people that sign up from culture x and then the first 60 of culture y.

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21
Q

Generalization

A

Taking something specific and applying it more broadly

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22
Q

Quantitative Research

Quantitative and Qualitative

A

Aim:
* Nomothetic approach (derive universally applicable rules)
* These rules may be applied to the behaviour of large groups of individuals

Focus: behavioural manifestations (operationalisations)

Data: Numbers

Objectivity: more objective- the researcher is eliminated from the studied reality

Types:

  • experiment
  • quasi-experimental
  • correlational study
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23
Q

Qualitative Research

Quantitative and Qualitative

A

Aim:
- Idiographic approach (in-depth understanding of a particular case or phenomenon)
- Obtained knowledge isn’t a universal law, but it’s deeper in the sense that a particular case is understood more holistically

Focus: Human experiences, interpretations, meanings

Data: Texts

Objectivity: more subjective- researcher is included in the studied reality
- researcher is an integral part of the procedure and a “tool of measurement”

Types:

  • observation
  • interview
  • focus group
  • case study
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24
Q

Descriptive Research

Quantitative and Qualitative

A

Seeks to explain what already exists

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25
Q

Correlational/Relational Research

Qualitative Research

A

The researcher measures two or more variables without manipulating an independent variable and with little or no attempt to control extraneous variables.

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26
Q

Experimental Research

Quantitative and Qualitative

A

Seeks to establish a causal relationship between two variables (control and dependent variable).

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27
Q

Causation

A

The relationship of cause and effect between one event or action and the result.

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28
Q

Research methods

Quantitative and Qualitative - Research method

A
  • Experiments (Lab/Field/Quasi/Naturalistic)
  • Case studies
  • Observations (Overt/Covert/Participant/Non-Participant)
  • Interviews
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29
Q

Correlation

A

A mutual relationship or connection between two or more things.

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30
Q

Lab experiment

Quantitative and Qualitative - Experimental research

A

The independent variable changes the dependent variable

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31
Q

Field experiment

Qualitative - Experimental research

A

A study that is conducted outside the laboratory in a “real-world” setting.

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32
Q

Quasi experiment

Quantitative Research - Experimental research

A

The researcher manipulates an independent variable but does not randomly assign participants to conditions.

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33
Q

Naturalistic experiment

Quantitative method - Experimental research

A

The study of a naturally occurring situation in the real world. The researcher does not manipulate an independent variable or assign participants randomly to conditions

34
Q

Independent measures / Beween-subjects

Experimental Design

A

Each participant participates at only one level of the Independent variables - experimental condition.

Also called an independent measures design and between-groups design. More
than one experimental group is used and participants are only in one group. Each participant is only in one
condition of the independent variable

35
Q

Repeated measures / Within-subjects

Quantitative Research - Experimental Design

A

Also called a within groups design. The same participants take part in each condition of the independent variable. This means that each condition of the experiment includes the same group.

36
Q

Order effects

A

Participation in one condition can affect performance in another condition. / Participants might become bored, fatigued, or exhibit the practice effect as a result of the repeated measuring.

37
Q

Counterbalancing

A

A technique used to deal with order effects when using a repeated measures design. When a study is counterbalanced, the sample is divided in half, with one half completing the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order.

38
Q

Observational research

Quantitative and Qualitative - Observational research

A
  • There is no manipulation of an independent variable, hence we can’t establish causation.
  • They do not allow us to study naturally occurring behaviours, often in naturalistic settings.
  • Don’t confuse the research method with observations as a method of field collection.
  • Some experiments manipulate an Independent variable, and observe how that impacts behaviour.
39
Q

Convert

Quantitative and Qualitative - Observational research

A

The people being observed do not know that they are being observed.

40
Q

Overt

Quantitative and Qualitative - Observational research

A

The people being watched know that they are being observed.

41
Q

Hawthorne Effect

Quantitative and Qualitative - Observational research

A

When participants act differently simply because they know that they are in an experiment.

42
Q

Participants

Quantitative and Qualitative - Observational research

A

The researcher(s) insert themselves into the situation they are observing.

43
Q

Non-participant

Quantitative and Qualitative - Observational research

A

The researchers only observe from afar.

44
Q

Naturalistic

Quantitative and Qualitative - Observational research

A

In a natural setting (most observations are naturalistic).

45
Q

Laboratory

Quantitative and Qualitative - Observational research

A

In a controlled environment

46
Q

Validity

Evaluating research

A

Whether the research does what it claims to do.

47
Q

Reliability

Evaluating research

A

The results can be replicated. Usually used in reference to experimental study.
- Lab experiments are reliable experiments
- Case study experiments are not reliable and cannot be generalised

48
Q

Internal validity

Evaluating research - Quantitative Research

A

When an experiment was conducted using appropriate controls so that it supports the conclusion that the independent variable caused observed differences in the dependent variable.

49
Q

External validity

Evaluating research - Quantitative Research

A

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized beyond the sample that was tested.

50
Q

Construct validity

Evaluating research - Quantitative Research

A

The degree to which a study consistently measures a variable. For example, if a researcher develops a new questionnaire to evaluate respondents levels of aggression, the construct validity of the instrument would be the extent to which it actually assesses aggression as opposed to assertiveness, social dominance, or irritability.

51
Q

Ecological validity

Evaluating research - Quantitative Research

A

The degree to which results obtained from research or experimentation are representative of conditions in the wider world. Ecological validity is influenced by the level of control in the environment (hence,
ecological).

52
Q

Correlation

A

A measure of linear relationship between 2 variables

  • Correlation coefficient can vary from -1 to +1
  • Correlation close to 0 means there’s no relationship between 2 variables

Negative correlation: there’s an inverse relationship between 2 variables, higher the A, lower the B

Positive correlation: means a direct relationship; higher the A, higher the

Characterised by 2 parameters:
- effect size
- statistical significance

53
Q

Structured interview

Quantitative and Qualitative - Interviews

A

Includes a fixed list of questions that need to be asked in a fixed order

Pros:
- useful when research project involves several interviews
- it’s essential to ensure that they all conduct interview in a standardised way
Cons:
- some participants may have unique circumstances/opinions that can’t be accommodated in a structured interview

54
Q

Semi-sturctured interview

Quantitative and Qualitative - Interviews

A

Don’t specify an order or a particular list of questions
- interview guide is like a checklist; interviewer knows there are some questions that must be asked, but there’s flexibility to ask additional follow-up questions

Pros:
- fits natural flow of conversation better
- better suited for smaller research projects
- more effective in studying the unique experiences of each participant
Cons:
- less comparability across researchers and participants

55
Q

Unstructured

Quantitative and Qualitative - Interviews

A
  • Is participant-driven
  • Every next question is determined by interviewee’s answer to the previous one
    Pros:
  • Very effective for investigating unique cases or cases where no theoretical expectations exist that would inform wording of the questions

Cons:
- Most “qualitative” of all 3 types
- More time-consuming
- Results are more difficult to analyse and interpret

56
Q

Case study

Qualitative Research - Case studies

A

The study of a particular person, group, or situation over a period of time. Case studies are technically not a research method - but a combination of research methods.

57
Q

Random allocation

Quantitative Research

A

A method of controlling extraneous variables across conditions by using a random process lo decide which participants will be in which conditions. This includes random number generators and pulling names out of a hat.

58
Q

Single-blind testing

Quantitative Research

A

An experiment in which the researchers know which participants are receiving a treatment and which are not; however the participants do not know which condition they are in.

59
Q

Opportunity sampling

Sampling method - Quantitative Research

A

Also called convenience sampling. A sampling technique where participants are selected based on naturally occurring groups or participants who are easily available.

60
Q

Random sampling

Sampling method - Quantitative Research

A

Selecting a sample of participants from a larger potential group of eligible individuals, such that each person has the same fixed probability or being included in the sample.

61
Q

Self-selected sampling

Sampling method - Quantitative Research

A

Also called volunteer sampling. Participants choose to become part of a study because they volunteer responding to an advert or a request to take part in the study.

62
Q

Stratified Random Sampling

Sampling method - Quantitative Research

A

A method of probability sampling in which the population is divided into different subgroups or “strata” and then a random sample is taken from each “stratum.

63
Q

Demand characteristics

Quantitative Research

A

Cues that may influence or bias participants’ behaviour, for example, by suggesting the outcome or response that the experimenter expects or desires.

64
Q

Expectancy effect

Quantitative Research

A

When a researcher’s expectations about the findings of the research are inadvertently communicated to participants and influence their responses. This distortion of results arises from participants’ reactions to subtle cues unintentionally given by the researcher - for example, through body movements, gestures, or facial expressions.

65
Q

Fatigue effect

Quantitative Research

A

A type of order effect where a participant decreases in performance in later conditions because they are tired or bored with the activity.

66
Q

Interference effect

Quantitative Research

A

A type of order effect where the first condition may influence the outcome of the second condition, For example, when giving to sets of words to remember, when a participant remembers a word from the first condition when trying to recall words in the second condition.

67
Q

Mundane Realism

Quantitative Research

A

The participants and the situation studied are representative of everyday life. If a study is highly artificial, It is said to lack mundane realism.

68
Q

Participant attrition

Quantitative Research

A

The rate at which participants drop out of a study over time. This often occurs when research has many steps or takes place over a long period of time.

69
Q

Placebo effect

Quantitative Research

A

A beneficial effect produced by a placebo drug or treatment. which cannot be attributed to the properties of the placebo itself, and must, therefore, be due to the patient’s belief in that treatment.

70
Q

Practice effect

Quantitative Research

A

A type of order effect where a participant improves in performance in later conditions because practice has led to the development of skill or learning.

71
Q

Random error

Quantitative Research

A

Error that is due to chance alone. Random errors occur when unexpected or uncontrolled factors affect the variable being measured or the process of measurement.

72
Q

Reactivity

Quantitative Research

A

When participants change their behaviour due to their awareness of being observed.

73
Q

Reliability

Quantitative Research

A

The consistency of a measure - that is, the degree to which a study is free of random error, obtaining the same results across time with the same population.

74
Q

Sampling bias

Quantitative Research

A

When a sample is selected in such a way that it is not representative of the population from which it was drawn. When a sample is biassed, population validity is decreased.

75
Q

Credibility

Qualitative Research

A

This word is often seen as a synonym for validity in qualitative research.

76
Q

Event sampling

Qualitative Research - Sampling

A

A data collection strategy for observational studies. This is when the researcher makes note only when a specific behaviour is observed. For example, only when aggression is observed on the playground.

77
Q

Focus group

Qualitative Research

A

A group interview, using 5 - 12 participants who share a common trait or interest.

78
Q

Participant observation

A

An observational study where the researcher joins the group that is being observed. The opposite of a non-participant observation.

79
Q

Personal reflexivity

A

When researchers reflect on how their own biases may have affected their research process and the findings of their research.

80
Q

Point sampling

Qualitative Research - Sampling

A

A data collection method used when carrying out an observation of a group where the researcher records the behavior of an individual and then moves on to the next participant until all have been observed.

81
Q

Time sampling

Qualitative Research - Sampling

A

A data collection method used when carrying out an observation of a group where notes are taken at specific times - for example, every five minutes or every hour.

82
Q

Transferability

Qualitative Research

A

The degree to which the results of qualitative research can be generalized or transferred to other contexts or settings.

IB Psychology (1 decks)

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