Research methods Flashcards
Definition of psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind through the observation of mental processes and behavior.
Empirical research
Research hypotheses which tests relationships between variables.
Hypotheses
Variables - Quantitative method
A testable statement of what the researcher predicts will be the outcome of the study which is usually
based on established theory.
The scientific method
- Is a method of gathering data and processing information
- It provides well-defined steps to standardize how scientific knowledge is gathered through a logical, rational, problem-solving method.
Independent variable
Variables
Variable that is manipulated by the experimenter
Dependent variable
Variables
Variable that changes as a result of the manipulation by the experimenter- the one that is measured
Confounding/Extraneous variables
Variables
Other variables (other than IV and DV) that can interfere in the relationship between the IV and the DV
- This is to ensure that it is the change in the IV that causes the change in the DV
Eliminate them or keep them constant.
Control variable
Variables
What is held constant and does not changes
Variable
Variables
Any characteristic that is objectively registered and quantified
Alternative/Experimental Hypothesis
Hypotheses methods - Qualitative methods
Also known as the research hypothesis. A hypothesis that states that there will be a
statistically significant relationship between two or more variables.
Two-tailed/Non-directional Hypothesis
Hypotheses methods
Predicts that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable, but the direction of the effect is not specified.
One-tailed/Directional Hypothesis
Hypotheses methods - Quantitative method
A scientific prediction stating that an effect will occur and whether that effect will specifically increase or specifically decrease, depending on changes to the independent variable
The Null-Hypothesis
Hypotheses methods
A hypothesis that says there will be no statistical significance between two variables. It is the
hypothesis that a researcher will try to disprove.
Target Population
The group whose behavior the researcher wishes to investigate.
Sample
Sample
A group of individuals taking part in the research study / A part of the population
- They are then studied and generalized
Sampling bias
Sample
Non-random sampling results in bias where some members of the population are less likely to be included than others. Participant variables also may not be representative & can influence the study’s outcome.
Probability sample
Sample
Refers to the selection of a sample from a population, when this selection is based on the principle of randomization, that is, random selection or chance.
Non-probability sample
Sample
Method of selecting units from a population using a subjective (i.e. non-random) method.
Sampling frame
Sample
A Frame that could be used as a basis for sampling (allows determining Probability of selection) and normally is any list, material or device that delimits, identifies, and allows access to the elements of the Survey population.
Quota sampling
Qualitative Research - Sampling
Similar to a stratified sample, but there is no random selection of participants from the population. For example, you want a sample that reflects your country’s population. If your country is 40% of one culture and 60% of another, then the sample would have that same proportion - but they are not chosen randomly. It might be the first 40 people that sign up from culture x and then the first 60 of culture y.
Generalization
Taking something specific and applying it more broadly
Quantitative Research
Quantitative and Qualitative
Aim:
* Nomothetic approach (derive universally applicable rules)
* These rules may be applied to the behaviour of large groups of individuals
Focus: behavioural manifestations (operationalisations)
Data: Numbers
Objectivity: more objective- the researcher is eliminated from the studied reality
Types:
- experiment
- quasi-experimental
- correlational study
Qualitative Research
Quantitative and Qualitative
Aim:
- Idiographic approach (in-depth understanding of a particular case or phenomenon)
- Obtained knowledge isn’t a universal law, but it’s deeper in the sense that a particular case is understood more holistically
Focus: Human experiences, interpretations, meanings
Data: Texts
Objectivity: more subjective- researcher is included in the studied reality
- researcher is an integral part of the procedure and a “tool of measurement”
Types:
- observation
- interview
- focus group
- case study
Descriptive Research
Quantitative and Qualitative
Seeks to explain what already exists
Correlational/Relational Research
Qualitative Research
The researcher measures two or more variables without manipulating an independent variable and with little or no attempt to control extraneous variables.
Experimental Research
Quantitative and Qualitative
Seeks to establish a causal relationship between two variables (control and dependent variable).
Causation
The relationship of cause and effect between one event or action and the result.
Research methods
Quantitative and Qualitative - Research method
- Experiments (Lab/Field/Quasi/Naturalistic)
- Case studies
- Observations (Overt/Covert/Participant/Non-Participant)
- Interviews
Correlation
A mutual relationship or connection between two or more things.
Lab experiment
Quantitative and Qualitative - Experimental research
The independent variable changes the dependent variable
Field experiment
Qualitative - Experimental research
A study that is conducted outside the laboratory in a “real-world” setting.
Quasi experiment
Quantitative Research - Experimental research
The researcher manipulates an independent variable but does not randomly assign participants to conditions.
Naturalistic experiment
Quantitative method - Experimental research
The study of a naturally occurring situation in the real world. The researcher does not manipulate an independent variable or assign participants randomly to conditions
Independent measures / Beween-subjects
Experimental Design
Each participant participates at only one level of the Independent variables - experimental condition.
Also called an independent measures design and between-groups design. More
than one experimental group is used and participants are only in one group. Each participant is only in one
condition of the independent variable
Repeated measures / Within-subjects
Quantitative Research - Experimental Design
Also called a within groups design. The same participants take part in each condition of the independent variable. This means that each condition of the experiment includes the same group.
Order effects
Participation in one condition can affect performance in another condition. / Participants might become bored, fatigued, or exhibit the practice effect as a result of the repeated measuring.
Counterbalancing
A technique used to deal with order effects when using a repeated measures design. When a study is counterbalanced, the sample is divided in half, with one half completing the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order.
Observational research
Quantitative and Qualitative - Observational research
- There is no manipulation of an independent variable, hence we can’t establish causation.
- They do not allow us to study naturally occurring behaviours, often in naturalistic settings.
- Don’t confuse the research method with observations as a method of field collection.
- Some experiments manipulate an Independent variable, and observe how that impacts behaviour.
Convert
Quantitative and Qualitative - Observational research
The people being observed do not know that they are being observed.
Overt
Quantitative and Qualitative - Observational research
The people being watched know that they are being observed.
Hawthorne Effect
Quantitative and Qualitative - Observational research
When participants act differently simply because they know that they are in an experiment.
Participants
Quantitative and Qualitative - Observational research
The researcher(s) insert themselves into the situation they are observing.
Non-participant
Quantitative and Qualitative - Observational research
The researchers only observe from afar.
Naturalistic
Quantitative and Qualitative - Observational research
In a natural setting (most observations are naturalistic).
Laboratory
Quantitative and Qualitative - Observational research
In a controlled environment
Validity
Evaluating research
Whether the research does what it claims to do.
Reliability
Evaluating research
The results can be replicated. Usually used in reference to experimental study.
- Lab experiments are reliable experiments
- Case study experiments are not reliable and cannot be generalised
Internal validity
Evaluating research - Quantitative Research
When an experiment was conducted using appropriate controls so that it supports the conclusion that the independent variable caused observed differences in the dependent variable.
External validity
Evaluating research - Quantitative Research
The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized beyond the sample that was tested.
Construct validity
Evaluating research - Quantitative Research
The degree to which a study consistently measures a variable. For example, if a researcher develops a new questionnaire to evaluate respondents levels of aggression, the construct validity of the instrument would be the extent to which it actually assesses aggression as opposed to assertiveness, social dominance, or irritability.
Ecological validity
Evaluating research - Quantitative Research
The degree to which results obtained from research or experimentation are representative of conditions in the wider world. Ecological validity is influenced by the level of control in the environment (hence,
ecological).
Correlation
A measure of linear relationship between 2 variables
- Correlation coefficient can vary from -1 to +1
- Correlation close to 0 means there’s no relationship between 2 variables
Negative correlation: there’s an inverse relationship between 2 variables, higher the A, lower the B
Positive correlation: means a direct relationship; higher the A, higher the
Characterised by 2 parameters:
- effect size
- statistical significance
Structured interview
Quantitative and Qualitative - Interviews
Includes a fixed list of questions that need to be asked in a fixed order
Pros:
- useful when research project involves several interviews
- it’s essential to ensure that they all conduct interview in a standardised way
Cons:
- some participants may have unique circumstances/opinions that can’t be accommodated in a structured interview
Semi-sturctured interview
Quantitative and Qualitative - Interviews
Don’t specify an order or a particular list of questions
- interview guide is like a checklist; interviewer knows there are some questions that must be asked, but there’s flexibility to ask additional follow-up questions
Pros:
- fits natural flow of conversation better
- better suited for smaller research projects
- more effective in studying the unique experiences of each participant
Cons:
- less comparability across researchers and participants
Unstructured
Quantitative and Qualitative - Interviews
- Is participant-driven
- Every next question is determined by interviewee’s answer to the previous one
Pros: - Very effective for investigating unique cases or cases where no theoretical expectations exist that would inform wording of the questions
Cons:
- Most “qualitative” of all 3 types
- More time-consuming
- Results are more difficult to analyse and interpret
Case study
Qualitative Research - Case studies
The study of a particular person, group, or situation over a period of time. Case studies are technically not a research method - but a combination of research methods.
Random allocation
Quantitative Research
A method of controlling extraneous variables across conditions by using a random process lo decide which participants will be in which conditions. This includes random number generators and pulling names out of a hat.
Single-blind testing
Quantitative Research
An experiment in which the researchers know which participants are receiving a treatment and which are not; however the participants do not know which condition they are in.
Opportunity sampling
Sampling method - Quantitative Research
Also called convenience sampling. A sampling technique where participants are selected based on naturally occurring groups or participants who are easily available.
Random sampling
Sampling method - Quantitative Research
Selecting a sample of participants from a larger potential group of eligible individuals, such that each person has the same fixed probability or being included in the sample.
Self-selected sampling
Sampling method - Quantitative Research
Also called volunteer sampling. Participants choose to become part of a study because they volunteer responding to an advert or a request to take part in the study.
Stratified Random Sampling
Sampling method - Quantitative Research
A method of probability sampling in which the population is divided into different subgroups or “strata” and then a random sample is taken from each “stratum.
Demand characteristics
Quantitative Research
Cues that may influence or bias participants’ behaviour, for example, by suggesting the outcome or response that the experimenter expects or desires.
Expectancy effect
Quantitative Research
When a researcher’s expectations about the findings of the research are inadvertently communicated to participants and influence their responses. This distortion of results arises from participants’ reactions to subtle cues unintentionally given by the researcher - for example, through body movements, gestures, or facial expressions.
Fatigue effect
Quantitative Research
A type of order effect where a participant decreases in performance in later conditions because they are tired or bored with the activity.
Interference effect
Quantitative Research
A type of order effect where the first condition may influence the outcome of the second condition, For example, when giving to sets of words to remember, when a participant remembers a word from the first condition when trying to recall words in the second condition.
Mundane Realism
Quantitative Research
The participants and the situation studied are representative of everyday life. If a study is highly artificial, It is said to lack mundane realism.
Participant attrition
Quantitative Research
The rate at which participants drop out of a study over time. This often occurs when research has many steps or takes place over a long period of time.
Placebo effect
Quantitative Research
A beneficial effect produced by a placebo drug or treatment. which cannot be attributed to the properties of the placebo itself, and must, therefore, be due to the patient’s belief in that treatment.
Practice effect
Quantitative Research
A type of order effect where a participant improves in performance in later conditions because practice has led to the development of skill or learning.
Random error
Quantitative Research
Error that is due to chance alone. Random errors occur when unexpected or uncontrolled factors affect the variable being measured or the process of measurement.
Reactivity
Quantitative Research
When participants change their behaviour due to their awareness of being observed.
Reliability
Quantitative Research
The consistency of a measure - that is, the degree to which a study is free of random error, obtaining the same results across time with the same population.
Sampling bias
Quantitative Research
When a sample is selected in such a way that it is not representative of the population from which it was drawn. When a sample is biassed, population validity is decreased.
Credibility
Qualitative Research
This word is often seen as a synonym for validity in qualitative research.
Event sampling
Qualitative Research - Sampling
A data collection strategy for observational studies. This is when the researcher makes note only when a specific behaviour is observed. For example, only when aggression is observed on the playground.
Focus group
Qualitative Research
A group interview, using 5 - 12 participants who share a common trait or interest.
Participant observation
An observational study where the researcher joins the group that is being observed. The opposite of a non-participant observation.
Personal reflexivity
When researchers reflect on how their own biases may have affected their research process and the findings of their research.
Point sampling
Qualitative Research - Sampling
A data collection method used when carrying out an observation of a group where the researcher records the behavior of an individual and then moves on to the next participant until all have been observed.
Time sampling
Qualitative Research - Sampling
A data collection method used when carrying out an observation of a group where notes are taken at specific times - for example, every five minutes or every hour.
Transferability
Qualitative Research
The degree to which the results of qualitative research can be generalized or transferred to other contexts or settings.
