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research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

operationalisation

A

making variables clearly defined and measured.

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2
Q

what is a hypothesis?

A

Clear and precise testable statement.
- states the relationship between the variables being investigated

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3
Q

alternate hypothesis

A

statement of a relationship between variables (there is a difference).

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4
Q

null hypothesis

A

statement of no relationship between variables (there is no difference).

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5
Q

cause and effect

A

the only thing that should cause a change in the DV is the IV

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6
Q

extraneous variables

A

Unwanted “extra variables” that may interfere with the relationship between the IV and DV,
- Can affect DV.

IF not controlled: the researcher cannot truly know what caused the change in the DV.

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7
Q

standardised procedures:

A

Using the exact same methods and procedures for participants in a research study.
To control EVs.
Only the IV should change.

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8
Q

randomisation:

A

using chance (eg.flipping a coin) to control effects of a bias when designing a study.

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9
Q

demand characteristics

A
  • characteristics of a study that may give away the purpose of the experiment.
  • participants might become aware of aim.
  • participants may change their behaviour to be seen in a better light/different way.
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10
Q

lab experiments:

A

Takes place in a labratory.
- Experimenter has a high control over what happens.

strengths:
- Extraneous variable can be controlled.
weaknesses:
- task do not usually represent things we do in our everyday lives.(artificial task).
- Participants may change their behavior (they’re aware that they’re being watched).

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11
Q

Field experiments:

A

Takes place in a natural setting.
- IV is still changed by experimenter.

strengths:
- More realistic than lab experiments (natural environment).
- Can use standardised procedures (some control).
weaknesses:
- May lose control of EVs (difficult to show cause and effect).
- Ethical issues (participants aren’t aware of the study.

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12
Q

natural experiments:

A

Takes place in a natural setting.
- IV isn’t changed by experimenter (naturally occurring).

strengths:
-High validity (due to the real world variables).
-Can standardise procedures (some control over EVs).
weaknesses:
-Few opportunities to do this kind of research as behaviours may be rare.
-May be EVs (due to the fact that participants aren’t randomly allocated to conditions).

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13
Q

experimental designs:

A

Different ways participants can be organised in relation to IVs/conditions of the experiment.

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14
Q

repeated measures:

A

all participants take part in all levels of the IV.

strengths:
-no participant variables.
-fewer participants needed so its less expensive.
weakness:
order effects reduce validity (eg. practice effect: participants may do better the second time).

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15
Q

order effects:
dealing with them:

A

EV arising from the order in which conditions are presented (in repeated measures).

How to deal with them:
- Counterbalancing: half the participants do the conditions in one order, other half do the opposite order,

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16
Q

independent groups:

A

Different group of participants for each level of the IV (condition).
- control and experimental group.

strengths:
order effects aren’t a problem because participants only do the experiment once.
weaknesses:
-different participants in each group, participant variables can act as an EV.

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17
Q

participant variable:
dealing with them:

A

Differing individual characteristics of participants.

How to deal with them:
Llocation: using chance or a systematic method to allocate participants to conditions, this way the researcher doesn’t influence who goes in each group and also makes participant variables even across the different conditions.

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18
Q

matched pairs:

A
  • participants tested on variables relevant to the study
  • participants are matched, and one member of each pair goes into each condition
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19
Q

evaluate the use of matched pairs.

A

strengths:
-no order effects
-fewer participant variables
weaknesses:
-takes time to match participants
-doesn’t control all participant variables

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20
Q

what is a sample?

A

subset of target population which aims to be representative of that population

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21
Q

what is sampling method?

A

system used to produce sample.

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22
Q

what is research bias?

A

process where the scientists performing the research influence the results in order to to portray a certain outcome.

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23
Q

what is random sampling and evaluate the use?

A

each person has equal chance of selection.

strengths:
-no bias (because everyone has an equal chance of selection).
weaknesses:
-takes time (have to make a list of members of the target population).

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24
Q

what is opportunity sampling and evaluate the use?

A

selecting people that are available.

strengths:
quick+cheap (participants are just there).
weaknesses:
only represents the population from which it was drawn.

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25
Q

what is systematic sampling and evaluate the use?

A

selecting every nth person from a list of the target population.

strengths:
avoids researcher bias.
weaknesses:
might be unrepresentative- (all males or all females).

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26
Q

what is stratified sampling and evaluate the use?

A

selecting participants in proportion to frequency in target population.

strengths:
very representative.
weaknesses:
very time-consuming to sort sub-groups.

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27
Q

what are interviews and evaluate the use?

A

self report method.
- face to face, real time contact and can also be done over phone or text.

strengths:
-produce a lot of info.
-insight gained into thoughts and feelings.
weaknesses:
-data can be difficult to analyse.
-people may feel uncomfortable talking face to face.

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28
Q

structured interviews:

A
  • reads list of questions.
  • can have prepared follow up questions.
  • follows exact script.
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29
Q

unstructured interviews:

A
  • some questions prepared before.
  • new questions created depending on what the interviewee says.
  • much like a conversation.
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30
Q

semi-structured interviews:

A
  • some questions decided before but follow up questions emerge at certain points.
  • “goes with the flow”.
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31
Q

what are questionnaires and evaluate the use?

A

prepared list of questions which can be answered in writing, over the phone, internet ect.

strengths:
-can gather info from many people quickly.
-data that is easier to analyse than interviews.
-easier to make comparisons.
weaknesses:
-social desirability bias - low validity.
-may be unclear.

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32
Q

open questions:

A
  • more likely in an interview.
  • no fixed range of possible answers
    respondents are free to reply in any way they wish.
  • produces qualitative data.
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33
Q

closed questions:

A
  • more likely in questionnaires.
  • fixed range of possible answers.
  • use rating scales, yes/no ect
    produces quantitative data.
34
Q

what are leading questions?

A

a question that prompts or encourages the desired answer.

35
Q

what is an observation and evaluate the use?

A

a researcher watches or listens to participants and records data.

strengths:
-greater validity as it’s based of what people actually do.
weaknesses:
-ethical issues as no consent has been given.
-observer bias: observers expectations affect validity as they may only record data that fits their expectations or may look over details.

36
Q

natural observation and controlled observation:

A

natural observation: researcher records behaviour where it would normally occur.

controlled observation: researcher manipulates aspects of the environment.

37
Q

what are covert and overt observations?

A

covert observation: participants aren’t aware behaviour is being recorded.

overt observation: told that they’re being recorded in advance.

38
Q

what are participant and non-participant observations?

A

participant observation: researcher is part of the group being recorded.

non-participant observation: researcher remains separate from the group that is being recorded.

39
Q

what is categories of behaviour?

A
  • systematic method of collecting data
  • target behavior broken into separate observable changes (smiling, laughing, touching).
40
Q

interobserver reliability:

A
  • observational studies should be carried out by more than one researcher because bias can be a problem.
  • a single researcher may overlook important details or only record data that fits expectations.
  • they would watch at the same time, have the same categories of behaviour and and compare data at the end.
41
Q

what are correlations and evaluate the use?

A

shows how things are linked together (associations).

strengths:
-allows psychologists to carry out investigations on things that cant be experimented on.
-high level of ecological validity as nothing is set up or manipulated.
weaknesses:
-don’t show cause and effect.
-no control over EVs so wrong conclusions may be drawn.

42
Q

scatter diagrams:

A
  • a special graph used to plot correlation data.
  • one co-variable is on the x-axis and the other is on the y- axis.
  • a dot is placed where they meet.
43
Q

types of correlation:

A

positive correlation: as one co-variable increases the other increases.

negative correlation: as one co-variable increases the other decreases.

zero correlation: no relationship between co-variables.

44
Q

what are case studies and evaluate the use?

A

in-depth investigation of an individual, group, event or institution.

strengths:
- more than one method to collect data on the same topic.
-naturally occurring.
-high ecological validity.
-rich and detailed qualitative data.
weaknesses:
-lack of replication.
-cannot generalise findings.
-time consuming.
-subjectivity bias causes low validity (findings are based on the psychologists opinion).

45
Q

case studies- qualitative method:

A
  • collect information about people’s experiences in words.
  • data in a case study may be describing past events or interviews (qualitative).
  • some case studies may involve experimental testing that produces quantitative data (eg. intelligence tests which produce a numerical score) to see what the person can and can’t do.
46
Q

case studies- longitudinal:

A
  • often carried out over a long period of time so we can see how behaviour changes.
  • may include looking back in time (a case history) or following an event over time.
47
Q

what is the issue with psychological studies?

A

conflict between participants’ rights and well-being and the need to gain valuable results.

48
Q

informed consent

A

participants must be told comprehensive information (nature, purpose and role) at the beginning and they can make an informed decision about whether or not they want to take part.

49
Q

how to deal with informed consent?

A

participants (or guardians) sign a form that tells them what is to be expected.

50
Q

deception

A

participants shouldn’t be lied to or misled about aim

-mild deception can be justified (withholding info about the other group/condition)

51
Q

protection from harm

A
  • participants shouldn’t be placed at risk.
  • physical and psychological safety should always be protected.
  • not made to feel stressed or embarrassed.
52
Q

how to deal with deception and protection from harm?

A
  • participants have a full debrief to explain true aims and other conditions ect.
  • participants are allowed to withhold data if unhappy with some aspects of study.
  • reduce stress (assure them it was typical behaviour)
    might be offered counseling).
53
Q

privacy

A

participants have the right to control information about themselves.

54
Q

confidentiality

A
  • personal data must be protected and respected.
  • data collected belongs to that person.
  • personal details shouldn’t be accessible (usually anonymous).
55
Q

how to deal with privacy and confidentiality?

A
  • participants must be anonymous (given numbers or referred to by initials).
  • data must not be shared unless given consent.
  • participants should be reminded that data will be protected and remain confidential.
56
Q

what is the BPS guidelines?

A

-code of conduct all professional psychologists in the UK need to follow

57
Q

reliability:

A
  • if it can be repeated its reliable.
  • measure of consistency.
58
Q

reliability of quantitative methods:

A
  • tend to be more reliable
  • lab experiments are controlled and easy to repeat exactly.

-interviews/questionnaires: same person should answer the same questions in the same way- Closed questions are likely to be more reliable.

  • observations: one or two observers (interobserver reliability) should produce the same observations if repeated.
59
Q

reliability of qualitative methods:

A

less reliable.

  • case studies and unstructured interviews are difficult to repeat in the same way.
  • data coming from interviews and case studies are open to interpretations.
60
Q

validity:

A

relates to whether a result is a true reflection of “real world” behavior.

61
Q

validity of sampling methods:

A
  • the sample may not represent the target population.
  • high representativeness = stratified sampling.
  • low representativeness = opportunity sampling.
62
Q

validity of experimental designs:

A
  • repeated measures: order effects challenge validity (can be overcome by counterbalancing).
  • independent groups: participant variables challenge validity (can be overcome by random allocation).
  • matched pairs: overcome both problems (though it isn’t perfect).
63
Q

validity of quantitative methods:

A
  • lab experiments: task, setting and participant awareness challenges validity = reduces naturalness and has high control.
  • field experiments: artificial tasks and lack of control of extraneous variables challenge validity = more natural.
  • methods for producing numerical data (eg questionnaires) lack validity as they reduce behavior to a score = therefore we get little to no insight into other aspects of their behavior.
64
Q

validity of qualitative methods:

A
  • case studies have greater validity as they give deeper insight into behavior, thoughts and the participant’s point of view.
  • difficult to analyse = reduces validity, findings are fairly subjective and the researcher’s own expectations influence the analysis.
65
Q

what is quantitative data and evaluation of use?

A

quantities (numbers) - can measure thoughts/feelings.

strengths:
-easy to analyse and draw conclusions.
-straightforward to make comparisons.
-statistics are open to less interpretation = less chance of bias.
weaknesses:
-lacks depth and detail.
-lacks validity.
-doesn’t reflect real world complexity.

66
Q

what is qualitative data and evaluate the use?

A

data in words - can be turned into numbers by counting themes.

strengths:
-more depth and detail.
-better insight (participant is free to fully express thought).
-more validity.
weaknesses:
-difficult to analyse and summarise (a lot of material).
-difficult to draw conclusions.
-conclusions may be based on the researcher’s own opinions = open to bias.

67
Q

what is primary data and evaluate the use?

A

data that has been obtained first hand by the researcher.
- collected data matches the aim of the study (collected for the purpose of the research).

strengths:
-suits the aims of the research = more useful.
-authentic.
weaknesses:
-takes time and effort to collect.
-costly.
-much easier and quicker to use data that is already conducted.

68
Q

what is secondary data and evaluate the use?

A
  • second hand data.
  • from other studies or government statistics.
  • already exists.

strengths:
-easy and convenient to use.
-saves expenses.
-saves time.
-little effort.
weaknesses:
-may not fit what the researcher is investigating.
-may be out-of-date.
-not quite complete or of poor quality = may waste time

69
Q

descriptive statistics:

A

express numbers in a way that shows the overall pattern.

70
Q

what is range and evaluate the use?

A

spread of data.
- arrange data in order and subtracts the lowest from the highest value.

strengths:
easy to calculate.
weaknesses:
-can be distorted by extreme scores .

71
Q

what is mean and evaluate the use?

A

mathematical average.
- add up all the scores and divide by the number of scores.

strengths:
-uses all the data.
weaknesses:
-can be distorted by extreme values.

72
Q

what is median and evaluate the use?

A

put data in order from lowest to highest.
- middle value.

strengths:
-not affected by extreme scores.
weaknesses:
-less sensitive than the mean to variation in values.

73
Q

what is mode and evaluate the use?

A

most common score.

strengths:
-very easy to calculate.
weaknesses:
-can be unrepresentative.

74
Q

frequency tables:

A

-frequency: number or times it occurs.
-frequency tables are a systematic way to organize data in rows and columns.

75
Q

frequency diagrams:

A
  • histogram: continuous categories, no spaces between bars.
  • bar chart: bars can be in any order
  • normal distribution: symmetrical spread forms a bell shape with mean, median and made at peak
76
Q

decimals:

A
  • any number written with a decimal.
  • position represents value.
  • eg. 0.2
77
Q

fractions:

A
  • reduce to simplest form.
  • eg. 1/2
78
Q

ratios:

A
  • way to express fractions.
  • 8:2 = 4.1
79
Q

percentages:

A
  • fractions out of 100.
  • eg. 58%
80
Q

standard form:

A

mathematical shorthand to represent very large or very small numbers.
32000 = 3.2 x 10^4.
0.00032 = 3.2 x 10^-4.

81
Q

significant figures:

A
  • numbers expressed to the required degree of accuracy eg. 2 significant figure:

32,462 = 32,000
0.003256 = 0.0033

82
Q

estimate results:

A

rough calculation.

psychology omar (5 decks)

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