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Psychology A Level > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the IV?

A

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher to measure any change in the dependent variable

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2
Q

What is the DV?

A

The variable that is measured and that changes in response to the manipulation of the independent variable

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3
Q

Outline a laboratory experimental technique

A
  • a well-controlled environment (artificial)
  • only variable that changes is the IV.
  • Extraneous variables eliminated, so only variable that influences DV is IV.
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4
Q

Outline a field experimental technique

A
  • everyday environment of participants (natural)
  • experimenter still manipulates IV, but in real-life setting.
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5
Q

Outline the Natural experimental technique

A
  • enable researcher to investigate effects of events difficult to manipulate e.g. children’s experience of war.
  • naturally occurring event
  • artificial and natural environment
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6
Q

Outline quasi experimental technique

A
  • naturally occurring individual differences btw participants
  • e.g gender, IQ , existence of a mental disorder etc
  • artificial and natural environment
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7
Q

What are the strengths and limitations of Lab experiments

A

Strengths:
- high internal validity (as results are trustworthy and not affected by extraneous variables)
- high replicability

Limitations:
- lacks ecological validity

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8
Q

What are the strengths and limitations of Field experiments

A

Strengths:
- ecological valitdity
- eliminates demand characteristics
Limitations:
- internal validity ocmpromised
- difficult to replicate

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9
Q

What are the strengths and limitations of natural experiments

A

Strengths:
- ecological validity
- Eliminated demand characteristics
- can investigate otherwise unethical phenomena e.g war
Limitations:
- internal validity compromised
- cannot replicate

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10
Q

What are the strengths and limitations of Quasi experiments

A

Strengths:
- high ecological validity
- allows to investigate IV they cannot manipulate

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11
Q

What is overt observation

A

Disclosed (participant knows they are being studied)

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12
Q

What is covert observation

A

Undisclosed (participant does not know as researcher acts as member of the group)

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13
Q

What is naturalistic observation

A
  • can be a pilot study (trial run)
  • indent iffy range of behaviours (which can be used as the focus of later research)
  • researcher watching subjects in normal environment
  • (can be I laboratory if behaviour observed not being manipulated in any way)
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14
Q

What is controlled observation

A
  • (structured)
  • likely laboratory
  • researcher decides where observation will take place, what time, which participants, what circumstances, standardised procedure
  • behaviour schedule (code of prev agreed scale) - systematic - easily counted and turned into statistics
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15
Q

What is a participant and non-participant observation

A
  • type of naturalistic observation
  • researcher joins in - deeper insight - covert (false identity), overt (reveals identity and asks permission to observe) (P)
  • observes but not as member of group (N-P)
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16
Q

What is self-report

A

‘Investigative strategies that require the participant to answer questions’

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17
Q

Outline questionnaire self-report techniques

A

Open:
- qualitative, depth
- BUT: time consuming to collect, difficult to analyse numerically
Closed:
- quantitative, easy to analyse
- BUT: No depth of data

Strengths:
- Large no. of respondents at same time
- not labour intensive (researcher does not have to be present)
- respondent can be more honest, no fear of being judged

Limitations:
- not present - difficult to tell truthful, if doesnt understand question may miss it out or write irrelevant answer
- participants dropping out

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18
Q

Outline interview self-report techniques

A
  • face to face qualitative and quantitative
  • carefully planned and piloted - relevant to area of study
  • sensitive issues (might not wish to divulge)
  • lots of info and make sure understand as can ask questions and clarify

Structured:
- focus questions on topic
:) exact same experience so analysed easily
:( no extra info may be collected

Unstructured:
- wide range of topics, issues not prev considered
:) ‘interesting’ answers can be followed up
:( lack of structure - no valid info

Semi-structured:
- combo of ^
:) ‘interesting’ answers can be followed up, exact same experience so analysed easily

Strengths:
- FTF - seek clarification, see from body lang if truthful, interesting answers followed up
Limitations:
- FTF - embarrassing or personal - not truthful/judged
- time-consuming, expensive
- demand characteristics

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19
Q

What are ethical issues of interviews and how can we limit

A
  • Embarrassment - difficult to withdraw - psych harm = monitor emotional and psych state, offer right to withdraw, full debrief, (counselling if necessary)
  • contact w interviewer - confidentiality limited = not acknowledge respondent outside of interview env and dont reveal to member of public
  • not always sensitive to reactions + forget to remind right to withdraw = monitor emotional and psych state, offer right to withdraw
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20
Q

What is an aim

A
  • A general statement of researchers intentions
  • link btw background theory, research and study that is subject of the report
  • PRESENT TENSE
    (E.g aim of this investigation is to investigate…. Using….)
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21
Q

What is a hypothesis

A

Prediction of what the researcher wants to find specific to the investigation tat is subject of the report
- has to be fully operationalised
- IV and DV must be expressed
- FUTURE TENSE (e.g there will be a difference between males and females in the time taken (in minutes) to complete a puzzle)

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22
Q

What is a Null Hypothesis

A
  • no effect of IV on DV and any effect is due to chance
  • standard again which any effect can be measured (whole point of research is to reject Null)
  • e.g There will be no difference between males and females in the time taken (in minutes) to complete a puzzle (H0)
  • ALWAYS NON-DIRECTIONAL (two tailed)
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23
Q

What is Alternative/alternate hypothesis

A
  • effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable (or, correlation between the two variables)
  • e.g There will be a difference between males and females in the time taken (in minutes) to complete a puzzle (HA)
  • CAN BE DIRECTIONAL OR NON-DIRECTIONAL (one or two-tailed)
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24
Q

What is Non-directional hypotheses

A
  • States that you will find something (but not what you will find)
  • Should be used whenever have no prior evidence that a particular outcome may be expected, or that the findings of previous research are unclear as to the specific outcome
  • e.g there will be a difference between males and females in the time taken (in minutes) to complete a puzzle
25
Q

What is Directional hypotheses

A
  • states exactly what hope to find
  • only when can confidently predict a specific outcome (prev research similar)
  • e.g Females will take less time (in minutes) to complete a puzzle than males
26
Q

What is Target Population

A

The group of people from which the participants are to be selected

27
Q

What is a sample

A

The group selected fro the target population that undergo testing

28
Q

What is sampling

A

The technique used to select participants from the target population.

29
Q

What is representativeness (population validity)

A

Whether the sample of participants tested behave in the same way as members of the target population.

30
Q

Outline Random sampling

A
  • ensures every member the target population has equal chance of being selected
  • E.g Draw names from a hat.
    Allocate each member of the target population with a number and enter the numbers into a computer, and get the computer to randomly select the required number of numbers, test those whose numbers are selected.

:) Most likely to be representative of the target population (population validity), Results can be generalised, Eliminates researcher bias.
:(Time consuming, may accidentally generate a biased sample (researcher may have selected people under bias)

31
Q

Outline self- selecting/ volunteer sampling

A
  • participants putting themselves forward to participate, usually in response to poster or advertisement.
  • Place a poster in an appropriate place, or publish an advertisement in an appropriate publication asking for participants. Test those that volunteer.

:)Quick, Easy, Population validity.
:( Limited representation of target population, as only certain types of people volunteer for psychology experiments (Orne & Holland), Lacks population validity.

32
Q

Outline opportunity sampling

A
  • Testing anyone that happens to be available at the time.

:) Quick, Easy
:( Lacks population validity (unrepresentative), Ungeneralizable.

33
Q

Systematic sampling

A
  • fixed periodic interval (every nth person on a list of names).

:) Representative, Generalisability.
:( Time-consuming, Expensive.

34
Q

Outline stratified sampling

A
  • A sample drawn from a number of separate strata (layers) of the population.
  • The target population is broken down into its constituent parts, and these are assessed in relation to its proportions in the population. The sample is then collected that reflects these attributes in the proportions that they occur in the target population.

:) Representativeness, generalisability
:( time consuming, difficult.

35
Q

What is a pilot study

A
  • small scale stud before full scale study takes place
  • Identification and elimination of extraneous variables in the initial stages of research saves money, time and effort. E.g understanding and validity of instructions, ensure observation of everything, establish means of recording and transcribing data to ease analysis
36
Q

Outline independent groups experimental design

A
  • different participants for each condition of iv
    :) Eliminates order effects, Reduces demand characteristics, Saves time (all conditions can be tested concurrently)
    :( Participant variables, More participants need to be recruited
37
Q

Outline repeated measures design

A
  • same participant for all conditions of the iv
    :) Not affected by participant variables, Fewer participants need to be recruited
    :( Order effects. Increased risk of demand characteristics. Takes longer as all conditions have to be tested separately.
38
Q

Outline matched pairs design

A
  • different participants for each condition of the iv, but who are matched for particular attributes e.g. age, IQ, reading ability etc.

:) Participant variables limited on critical attributes. Eliminates order effects. Limits demand characteristics. Saves time, as all conditions can be tested concurrently.
:) Time consuming. Difficult. Participant variables can still affect findings, if the correct matching attributes have not been selected.

39
Q

What is time sampling

A
  • where observer records behaviours at prescribed intervals
    :) Observers dont have to be present for entire duration, just when tallying behaviours.
    :( Behaviours that occur outside of times will not be logged, compromising validity of results.
40
Q

What is event sampling

A
  • noting and recording occurrence of highly specified behaviour whenever it is seen (within time period)
    :) Observers present for entire duration of observation, so no behaviours missed - validity of the results strong
    :( time-consuming
41
Q

What are co-variables

A

Variables that change in relation to eachother

42
Q

What is operationalisation of variables

A
  • making variables measurable (must be able to identify them)
43
Q

What is the difference between extraneous and confounding variables?

A

E: variable that not intentionally studying which could threaten the inn tern al validity of results e.g situational or individual differences, demand characteristics, researcher bias

C: if E not controlled or eliminates, provides alternative explanation for results

44
Q

How can you control extraneous variables

A
  • random allocation
  • counterbalancing (1/2 do A then B, 1/2 do B then A)
  • randomisation (present conditions of IV in random order (order effects eliminated))
    -standardisation - procedure and instructions (experience in exact same way
45
Q

What are investigator effects

A

occur when a researcher unintentionally, or unconsciously influences the outcome of any research they are conducting e.g researcher communicate feelings abt what observing

46
Q

What is the role of the British psychological Society’s code of ethics?

A

Maintain all members of society in their professional conduct:
- respect
- competence (ability to do smt well)
- responsibility
- integrity (honest with strong moral principles)

47
Q

What are ethical issues in the design and conduct of psychological studies and how do you deal with them

A

consent - impossible to give fully informed as demand characteristics - prior general consent (however may not agree to procedure if had known full details) - presumptive consent (gained from groups of people similar demographic levels to participants)

deception - informed consent - test only those who agreed to be deceived - debriefing (BUT too late as damage already experienced) - cost-benefit analysis (assessing risks/costs to individual against benefits to society - BUT researcher bias may influence)

psychological/physical harm - anticipating harm and stopping the study (e.g watching reactions - embarrassment or distress) - BUT not easy e.g Zimbardo - using questionnaires

right to non-participation - right to withdraw reminded

48
Q

16 pigs can dance in rain

A
  • under 16’s (consent from their parents, fully informed)
  • Protection from physical and psychological harm (not be exposed to any more than would expect to encounter in everyday life)
  • Confidentiality (not be able to be identified e.g names should replaced by numbers, all their data destroyed when no longer required)
  • Deception (made aware of aims and hypotheses - demand characteristics, and findings would lack internal validity)
  • Informed consent (made aware of the aims and hypotheses - proper decision regarding whether they want to participate)
  • Right to withdraw (aware can leave the research situation at any time, should they feel uncomfortable or distressed. No bribe or threat. right to have data removed, and a right to watch being destroyed)
49
Q

Outline the role of peer review

A
  • independent scrutiny by other psychologists working in similar field
  • considered in terms of validity, significance, originality, credibility and appropriateness
    :) reviewed by experts, poor quality work not published allows research departments to be rated and funded in terms of quality
    :( Bias - prestigious; positive findings, time consuming, competition for funds, fails to prevent scientific fraud
50
Q

What are the implications of psychological research for the economy?

A
  • Bowlby = good substitute childcare in day nurseries
  • Psychopathology = effectiveness of different types of therapy (which best for different clients)
  • Memory = greater accuracy (cognitive interview techniques) - better use of police time and money
  • stress = how employers manage workplace stress + optimise production
  • advertising = best way to market goods
51
Q

Outline quantitative and qualitative data

A

Quantitative:
- numerical
:) High internal validity in lab studies, Replicable and objective, High ecological validity in field
studies
:( Low ecological validity in lab studies, Demand characteristics, Low population validity, Low internal validity in field studies, Issues of inter-observer reliability, Issues of subjectivity may result in researcher bias

Qualitative
- non- numerical
- (most common - thematic = themes within data)
:) allows qualitative data to be operationalised, and produce quantitative data that can be analysed and compared
:( issues of inter-observer reliability, issues of subjectivity - researcher bias

52
Q

Outline meta- analysis

A

Secondary data collected from many different studies and re-analysed to see whether there is an overall effect.
:) less time consuming, Likely high population validity as many participants in samples
:( may not be totally relevant - May require inference, any bias in original study is transferred to new study

53
Q

What is a nominal level of data measurement?

A
  • Counting frequency data e.g how many days in the week were…
  • tally charts can be used to record
54
Q

What is an ordinal level of data measurement?

A
  • Data is ranked into place order
  • rating scales
  • more informative than nominal (but not fully)
    E.g finishing places in 100m race (shows which athletes are better but not time btw each runner)
55
Q

What is an interval/ratio level of data measurement?

A

-standardised measurement units e.g time, mass etc
-most informative and accurate
- callers together as apply to same statistical test
- interval has arbitrary 0 e.g 0°C
- ratio has absolute 0 e.g £0

56
Q

What are the conditions for use fo a sign test

A

• Data should be at nominal level.
• Data should be collected from a repeated measures design.
• A test of difference between two conditions of the independent variable.

57
Q

How to work out the sign test

A
  1. Calculate the difference between A and B, always subtracting in the same direction.
  2. Enter a sign of the difference in the last column, ignoring all zero values, and N reflects the number of non-zero differences there are.
  3. Add up the number of times the less frequent sign occurs – (s). (E.g -ve sign)
  4. Check the critical value in the table, using N as the number of positive and negative signs, and compare your s value with it.
  5. s has to be less than or equal to the value in the table for the results to be
    significant.
  6. Make a statement of significance in relation to your hypotheses. (E.g s <_ critical value = significant difference, therefore reject null hypothesis, accept alternate hypothesis. There is a difference in ….)
58
Q

What is the level of significance for a one tailed and two tailed test

A

0.05

Psychology A Level (7 decks)

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