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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

qualitative data

A

non-numerical

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2
Q

quantitative

A

numerical data

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3
Q

quantitative - advantage

A

easy to analyse

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4
Q

quantitative - disadvantage

A

lacks detail

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5
Q

qualitative - advantage

A

rich in detail

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6
Q

qualitative - disadvantage

A

hard to analyse

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7
Q

What distinguishes experimental methods from others?

A

an IV, DV and cause and effect

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8
Q

IV

A

deliberately manipulated by investigator

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9
Q

DV

A

measured by investigator

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10
Q

Participant variables

A

any characteristics or traits of the participant that might unfairly influence the results e.g. age, gender

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11
Q

Investigator effects

A

any cues from investigator that encourage a certain behaviour in participants e.g. facial expressions

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12
Q

environmental variables

A

any aspects of the environment or situation that might unfairly influence the results e.g. time of day, light

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13
Q

Demand characteristics

A

any cues that reveal the aims of the study to the participants
- if they become aware, may alter behaviour to help or hinder the experiment
-may just alter behaviour without intention

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14
Q

Standardisation

A

putting controls into place
-ensures all aspects are the same for every participant
-consistent standard
-environment, procedures, instructions

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15
Q

Randomisation

A

Ensures all choices are randomly selected by chance
-rather than determined by researcher

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16
Q

confounding variables

A

Any extraneous variable that is not controlled and spoils the results

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17
Q

Internal validity

A

Whether or not the research measured what it intended to
-EVs are controlled

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18
Q

External validity

A

whether results can be generalised to real life outside world
-representative

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19
Q

ecological validity

A

Real life setting

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20
Q

Population validity

A

Generalisable to other people in target population

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21
Q

Temporal validity

A

Generalisable to modern world

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22
Q

reliability

A

consistency

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23
Q

lab experiments

A

establish a cause and effect relationship between IV and DV in a controlled environment using standardised procedures

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24
Q

lab advantages

A

+high control
+easy to replicate

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25
Q

lab disadvantages

A

-demand characteristics
-low ecological validity

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26
Q

Field experiments

A

Establish cause and effect relationship between IV and DV conducted outside lab in real life environments

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27
Q

field advantages

A

+high ecological validity
+low demand characteristics

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28
Q

field disadvantages

A

-low degree of control
-difficult to replicate

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29
Q

natural experiments

A

establish a cause and effect relationship between IV and DV where IV varies naturally and is not deliberately manipulated by investigator

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30
Q

natural advantages

A

+high ecological validity
+provides opportunity for research that may not otherwise take place - e.g. unethical (age at which child is adopted) or impractical (intro of TV to society)

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31
Q

natural disadvantages

A

-random allocation to conditions is not possible - condition participants are in also occurs naturally which may be biased e.g. all people in one condition may be more intelligent or friendly
-difficult to replicate

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32
Q

quasi experiments

A

Establish a cause and effect relationship between IV and DV where IV doesn’t vary at all because the condition already exists e.g. gender, age

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33
Q

quasi advantages

A

+high ecological validity
+provides opportunity for research that may not otherwise take place - allows research where varying IV isn’t possible

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34
Q

quasi disadvantages

A

-random allocation not possible
-difficult to replicate

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35
Q

aims

A

General statement about what the researcher intends to study

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36
Q

Hypothesis

A

Precise and testable statement that states relationship between variables

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37
Q

Nom directional hypothesis

A

States that there will be an effect but doesn’t state which way that effect will go

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38
Q

Directional hypothesis

A

States which way effect will go

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39
Q

Pilot study

A

Small scale trial run
- checks research works as intended to
- no extraneous variables

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40
Q

Why pilot study?

A

1) do participants understand instructions
2)are materials and timings appropriate
3)ask a few participants about their experience
4)have variables been operationalised sufficiently

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41
Q

Population

A

Large group of individuals who share specific characteristics that a researcher is interested in studying

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42
Q

Sample

A

Smaller group that is representative of population

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43
Q

Bias in terms of sampling

A

Under or over representing certain groups within sample

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44
Q

Generalisation in terms of sampling

A

extent to which sample can be applied to population

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45
Q

Opportunity sampling

A

Anyone who is willing and available
E.g. approach on street

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46
Q

Opportunity advantage

A

+quick, convenient, economical

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47
Q

Opportunity disadvantages

A

-biased and unrepresentative

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48
Q

Volunteer sampling

A

Individuals put themselves forward
E.g. adverts in newspaper or notice boards

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49
Q

Volunteer advantage

A

+quick, convenient, economical

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50
Q

Volunteer disadvantage

A

-biased and unrepresentative

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51
Q

Systematic sampling

A

Every nth member of target population
E.g. school register

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52
Q

Systematic advantage

A

+avoids researcher bias

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53
Q

Systematic disadvantage

A

-not guaranteed to be representative e.g, could all be male - not everyone has equal chance of being selected

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54
Q

Random sampling

A

Everyone in target population has equal chance of being selected
E.g. names in hat

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55
Q

Random advantage

A

+avoids researcher bias

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56
Q

Random disadvantage

A

-not guaranteed to be representative

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57
Q

Stratified sampling

A

Sample that reflects the proportions of people in different subgroups within population
E.g. if 15% are under 18

1) identify subgroup
2) work out proportions
3) participants from each subgroup chosen randomly

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58
Q

Stratified advantage

A

+highly representative - names from hat also focus on subgroups

Reduces researcher bias

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59
Q

Stratified disadvantage

A

-time consuming and inconvenient - lots of necessary planning

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60
Q

Experimental design

A

Way in which participants are allocated to different conditions

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61
Q

Repeated measures

A

All participants take part in all conditions

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62
Q

Repeated measures advantages

A

+no participant variables
+requires half as many participants

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63
Q

Repeated measures disadvantages

A

-suffers from order effects
-high demand characteristics

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64
Q

Independent groups

A

Participants are placed into separate groups randomly and each complete one of the conditions

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65
Q

Independent groups advantages

A

+no order effects
+low demand characteristics

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66
Q

Independent groups disadvantages

A

-low degree of control over participant variables
-requires twice as many participants

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67
Q

Matched pairs

A

Different participants used for different conditions, however, participants have been matched into pairs based on important characteristics. One of each pairs takes condition A and the other takes condition B

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68
Q

Matched pairs advantages

A

+no order effects
+low demand characteristics

69
Q

Matched pairs disadvantages

A

-less control over participant variables than repeated measures
-requires twice as many participants

70
Q

Random allocation

A

-controls investigator bias in independent groups
-assigning all participants a number, putting numbers onto slips of paper and slips of paper into hat
-numbers are drawn so that every other number goes in condition A

71
Q

Counterbalancing

A

-controls impact of order effects in repeated measures
-half the group does A then B, other half does B then A
-order effects are distributed evenly

Doesn’t eliminate completely

72
Q

Ethical issues

A

-deception
-lack of informed consent
-lack of protection from harm
-lack of right to withdraw
-lack of confidentiality

73
Q

Deception

A

Participants are deliberately misled about the true nature of the study
-informed consent cannot be gained
-participant may become distrustful of psychology studies

74
Q

How to deal with deception

A

Debrief
Retrospective consent

75
Q

Lack of informed consent

A

For informed consent to be given, true aims of study must be revealed before giving participants choice to agree or refuse

76
Q

How to deal with lack of informed consent

A

Presumptive consent
Retrospective consent

77
Q

Lack of protection from harm

A

Ensure participants come to no more harm than they would in everyday life
-both psychological (e.g. embarrassment, anxiety) and physical harm

78
Q

How to deal with lack of protection from harm

A

Keep within ethical code
Abandon study immediately if participants are harmed

79
Q

Lack of right to withdraw

A

Must be made aware before, during and after study that it is their right to be able to leave

80
Q

How to deal with lack of right to withdraw

A

Retrospective withdrawal

81
Q

Lack of confidentiality

A

The right to keep data anonymous

82
Q

How to deal with confidentiality

A

Pseudonyms
Anonymise and don’t publish anything identifiable

83
Q

Observational techniques

A

Involves watching and recording behaviour
Non experimental

84
Q

Naturalistic

A

Natural situation where researcher doesn’t influence in any way
E.g. infants in nursery

85
Q

Naturalistic advantages

A

+no demand characteristics
+high ecological validity

86
Q

Naturalistic disadvantages

A

-difficult to replicate
-low control over variables

87
Q

Controlled observation

A

Environment has been controlled and regulated by researcher
E.g. observing infants in pre planned situations

88
Q

Controlled advantages

A

+easy to replicate
+high control over variables

89
Q

Controlled disadvantages

A

-low ecological validity
-high demand characteristics

90
Q

Overt observations

A

Participant is aware they are being observed

91
Q

Overt advantage

A

+no ethical issues

92
Q

Overt disadvantage

A

-high demand characteristics

93
Q

Covert observations

A

Participants are not aware that their behaviour is being watched

94
Q

Covert advantage

A

+no demand characteristics

95
Q

Covert disadvantage

A

-lack of informed consent

96
Q

Non-participant observations

A

Researcher remains separate from people they are studying and records behaviour in more objective manner
E.g. female researcher observing boys at school

97
Q

Non-participant advantage

A

+no investigator effects

98
Q

Non-participant disadvantage

A

-no first hand insight

99
Q

Participant observations

A

Observer becomes part of group that they are observing
Watches behaviour from within social situation
E.g. joining criminal gang

100
Q

Participant observation advantage

A

+first hand insight

101
Q

Participant observation disadvantage

A

-investigator effects

102
Q

Observer bias

A

Observer’s expectations influence what researcher sees or hears or even the data they record
E.g. expecting boys to be more aggressive than girls might lead a researcher to spend more time looking for aggression in the boys

103
Q

Event sampling

A

Continuously watching and counting number of times event occurs

104
Q

Time sampling

A

Recording behaviour at specific time intervals

105
Q

Event sampling advantage

A

+doesn’t overlook important behaviour

106
Q

Event sampling disadvantage

A

-increases observer bias

107
Q

Time sampling advantage

A

+reduces observer bias

108
Q

Time sampling disadvantage

A

-overlooks important behaviour

109
Q

Self report techniques

A

Questionnaire
Interview

110
Q

Questionnaire

A

Written questions on a topic to assess participants thoughts, feelings, opinions
Always predetermined and structured
Open and closed questions

111
Q

Closed questions

A

Fixed number of responses
Quantitative

112
Q

Open questions

A

No fixed answer
Qualitative

113
Q

Interviews

A

Asking participants questions face to face
Structured and unstructured
Open and closed questions

114
Q

Questionnaire advantages

A

+no investigator effects
+easy to gather large sample

115
Q

Questionnaire disadvantages

A

-can’t clarify ambiguous questions
-can’t observe behaviour

116
Q

Interview advantages

A

+can clarify ambiguous questions
+can observe behaviour

117
Q

Interview disadvantage

A

-investigator effects
-difficult to gather large sample

118
Q

Structured interviews

A

Predetermined set of questions in fixed order
Standardised

119
Q

Unstructured interviews

A

Free flowing conversation with no set questions
General aim of topic discussed
Interviewee is encouraged to expand and elaborate

120
Q

Structured advantages

A

+easy to replicate
+less investigator effects

121
Q

Structured interview disadvantages

A

-less detail and flexibility to explore
-less trust and rapport to reduce social desirability bias

122
Q

Unstructured interview advantages

A

+more detail and flexibility to explore
+more trust and rapport to reduce social desirability bias

123
Q

Unstructured interview disadvantages

A

-difficult to replicate
-investigator effects

124
Q

Semi structured interviews

A

List of predetermined questions but also freedom to explore and ask follow up questions

125
Q

Correlation

A

analyses strength and direction of a relationship between two co variables
-neither are manipulated so no cause and effect

126
Q

Co-variables

A

variables in a correlation that are being analysed

127
Q

Correlations are plotted on a….

A

Scattergram

128
Q

Positive Correlation

A

As one co-variable increases, the other increases

129
Q

Negative correlation

A

As one co-variable increases, the other decreases

130
Q

Zero correlation

A

No relationship

131
Q

Correlation co-efficient

A

number that represents the strength and direction of the relationship between two co-variables
-1 = perfect negative
0 = no correlation
+1 = perfect positive

132
Q

Correlation - advantages

A

+easy to analyse - quantitive
+further research - identifies link that opens up new lines of research

133
Q

Correlation - disadvantage

A
  • no cause and effect
    -3rd variable problem - could be due to a third variable - link between stress and illness could be lack of sleep caused by stress causing illness
134
Q

Primary data

A

Original data directly observed and collected specifically for the purpose of the investigation

135
Q

Secondary data

A

Collected by someone other than the person conducting the research- data that already exists e.g. journals, books, websites

136
Q

Meta analysis

A

Combining results from a number of studies

137
Q

Primary data advantages

A

+quality control
+ensure research fits objectives

138
Q

Primary data disadvantages

A

-time consuming and expensive
-statistical significance not known

139
Q

Secondary data advantages

A

+quick and cheap
+statistical significance known

140
Q

Secondary data disadvantages

A

-no quality control
-can’t ensure research fits objectives

141
Q

Meta-analysis advantage

A

+easy to gather on large scale

142
Q

Meta-analysis disadvantage

A

-may suffer file drawer effect - process of selecting them can be open to bias - leave out studies that don’t suit hypothesis

143
Q

Mean

A

Add up all scores and divide by total number of scores

144
Q

Median

A

Middle score

145
Q

Mode

A

Most common score

146
Q

Mean advantage

A

+Sensitive measure

147
Q

Mean disadvantage

A

-skewed by extreme measures

148
Q

Median and mode advantage

A

+not skewed by extreme scores

149
Q

Median and mode disadvantage

A

-not a sensitive measure

150
Q

Range

A

Highest subtract lowest

151
Q

Standard deviation

A

Measures spread around the mean
-large = widely spread
-small = clustered

152
Q

Range advantage

A

+easy to calculate

153
Q

Range disadvantage

A

-not sensitive

154
Q

SD advantage

A

+sensitive

155
Q

SD disadvantage

A

-difficult to measure

156
Q

Bar charts

A

Discrete data - categories
Space between bars - not continuous

157
Q

Histograms

A

Bars touch - continuous data

158
Q

Line graph

A

Continuous joined by line

159
Q

Scattergram

A

Continuous data
Do not depict

160
Q

Normal distribution

A

-mean median and mode are exact mid point
-distribution is symmetrical
-dispersion on either side is consistent

68.26% of people lie within 1 SD
95.44% of people lie within 2SD

161
Q

Skewed distribution

A

Not symmetrically spread
Positive to left
Negative to right

Mode remains at midpoint
Median
Then mode

162
Q

Peer review

A

Assessment of work by independent experts that ensures high quality

163
Q

Peer review aims

A

1) validate quality
2) suggest changes or improvements
3) allocate funding
4) validity

164
Q

Peer review strength

A

+stops flawed and fraudulent research

165
Q

Peer review disadvantage

A

-slows down publication - anonymous so could use as opportunity to
-growing use of internet means less peer review

166
Q

Implications for economy - memory

A

Cognitive interview - Kohnken

167
Q

Implications for economy - attachment

A

Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation

168
Q

Implications for economy - approaches and psychopathology

A

Mental health - £22.5 billion

169
Q

Implications for economy - social influence

A

Behavioural insight team

Psychology (7 decks)

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