Research Methods Flashcards
Define aim
A statement of what the researcher intends to find out in a research study
Define debriefing
A post-research interview designed to inform participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the state they were at the start of the study
Define ethical issues
Concern questions of right or wrong
Define hypothesis
A precise and testable statement about the assumed relationship between variables
Define independent variable
The factor that is changed by the experimenters
Define dependent variable
The factor that is measured by the experimenters
Define extraneous variable
A factor that is not being investigated and affects the dependent variable
Define confounding variable
An observation study where the researchers control some variables - often takes place in laboratory setting
Define operationalise
The process of defining variables into measurable factors
Define control variable
Factors that stay the same during the experiment
Define experimental method
A research method that uses random allocation of participants and manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect
Define standardised procedures
A set of procedures that are the same for all participants in order to repeat the study
Define validity
Refers to whether an observed effect is a genuine one
Define internal validity
The degree to which an observed effect was due to the experimental manipulation of the independent variable rather than other factors
Define external validity
The degree to which a research finding can be generalised
Define ecological validity
The degree to which a research finding can be generalised to another setting
Define population validity
The degree to which a research finding can be generalised to another group of people
Define historical validity
The degree to which a research finding can be generalised to a different time period
Define mundane realism
Refers to how a study mirrors the real world
Define demand characteristics
A cue that makes participants unconsciously aware of the aims of the study or helps participants work out what the researcher expects to find
Define investigator effects
Anything that the researcher does to effect the participant’s performance in a study
Define single blind trial
An experiment in which the participants are not aware of the aims or hypothesis or which condition of the independent variable they are receiving
Define double blind trial
An experiment in which neither participant nor the investigator are aware of the aims or hypothesis of the study
Define counterbalancing
An experimental technique used to overcome order effects when using a repeated measured design. It ensures that each conditions is tested first or second in equal amounts
Define experimental design
A set of procedures used to control the influence of factors such as participant variables in an experiment
Define independent groups design
Participants are allocated to two (or more) groups representing different levels of the independent variable. Allocation is usually done using techniques
Define matched pairs design
Pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables such as age or IQ. One member of each pair is allocated to one of the conditions under test and the second person is added to the other condition
Define order effect
In a repeated measures design, an extraneous variable arising from the order in which conditions are presented
Define random allocation
Allocating participants to experimental groups or conditions using random techniques
Define repeated measures design
Each participant takes part in every condition under test
Define field experiment
An experiment carried out in a natural environment, outside of the lab. The independent variable is manipulated by the investigator
Define laboratory experiment
An experiment carried out in a controlled environment. The independent variable is manipulated by the investigator
Define natural experiment
An experiment in which the independent variable has not been manipulated by the investigator
Define quasi experiment
An experiment in which the independent variable cannot be manipulated by the investigator as it is a characteristic
Define bias
A systematic distortion
Define generalisation
Applying the findings of a study to the population
Define opportunity sample
A sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study
Define population validity
The group of people the researcher is interested in
Define random sample
A sample of participants produced by using a random technique such that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
Define sampling
The method used to select participants
Define stratified sampling
A sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the population. Participants are then selected randomly from the subgroups
Define systematic sample
A sample obtained by selecting every nth person
Define volunteer bias
A form of sampling bias because volunteer participants have special characteristics
Define volunteer sample
A sample of participants that relies solely on volunteers making up the sample
Define confidentiality
Concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another, the trust that the information will be protected
Define deception
A participant is not told the true aims of the study
Define informed consent
Participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of research and their role in it, in order to make an informed decision about whether to participate
Define privacy
A person’s right to control the flow of information about themselves
Define protection from harm
During a research study, participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects
Define right to withdraw
Participants can stop participating in a study if they are uncomfortable in some way
Define cost-benefit analysis
A systematic approach to estimating the negatives and positives of any research
Define debriefing
A post-research interview designed to inform participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the state they were in at the start of the study
Define ethical guidelines
A set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly and with integrity
Define ethics committee
A group of people within a research institution that must approve of a study before it begins
Define presumptive consent
A method of dealing with lack of informed consent or deception, by asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part in the study. If this group consents then it is presumed that the real participants would also consent
Define controlled observation
A form of investigation in which behaviour is observed but under conditions where certain variables have been organised by the researcher
Define covert observations
Observing people without their knowledge
Define inter-observer reliability
The extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour
Define inter-observer reliability
The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour
Define naturalistic observation
An observation carried out in an everyday setting, in which the investigator does not interfere in any way but merely observes the behaviour(s) in question
Define non-participant observation
The observer is seperate from the people being observed
Define observer bias
Observers’ expectations affect what they see or hear. This reduces the validity of the observations
Define overt observation
Observational studies where participants are aware that their behaviour is being studied
Define participant observation
Observations made by someone who is also participating in the activity being observed
Define behavioural categories
Dividing a target behaviour into a subset of specific or operationalised behaviours
Define event sampling
An observational technique in which a count is kept of the number of times a certain behaviour occurs
Define structured observation
A researcher uses various systems to organise observations, such as behavioural categories and sampling procedures
Define time sampling
An observational technique in which the observer records different behaviours in a given time frame. The observer may select one or more behavioural categories to tick at this time interval
Define interview
A research method that involves a face-to-face, ‘real time’ interaction with another individual and results in the collection of data
Define interviewer bias
The effect an interviewer’s expectations, communicated unconsciously, on a respondents behaviour
Define questionnaire
Data are collected through the use of written questions
Define social desirability bias
A distortion in the way people answer questions
Define structured interviewed
Any interview in which the question have been agreed in advance
Define unstructured interview
The interview starts out with some general aims and lets the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions
Define closed questions
Questions that have a premeditated range of answers from which respondents select one
Define open questions
Questions that invite respondents to provide their own answers rather than select one of those provided
Define qualitative data
Non-numerical data
Define quantitative data
Data in numbers
Define co-variable
The two measured variables in a correlational analysis. The variables must be continuous
Define continuous variable
A variable that can take on any value within a certain range
Define correlation
Determining the extent of an association between two variables
Define zero correlation
When two co-variables are not linked at all
Define positive correlation
When two co-variables increase together
Define negative correlation
As one co-variable increases the other decreases
Define correlation coefficient
A number between -1 and +1 that shows us how closely the co-variables in a correlational analysis are associated
Define curvilinear correlation
A non-linear relationship between co-variables
Define intervening variable
A variable that comes between two other variables which is used to explain the association between the two variables
Define linear correlation
A systematic relationship between co-variables that is defined by a straight line
Define scattergram
A graphical representation of the association between two sets of scores
Define significance
A statistical term indicating that the research findings are sufficiently strong for us to accept the research hypothesis under test
Define effect size
A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables
Define meta-analysis
A researcher looks at the findings from a number of different studies and produces a statistic to represent the overall effect
Define review
A consideration of a number of studies that have investigated the same topic in order to reach a general conclusion about a particular hypothesis
Define mean
The average of a data set. Takes all data into account
Define measure of central tendency
A descriptive statistic that provides information about a typical value for a data set
Define measure of dispersion
A descriptive statistic that provides information about how spread out a set of data are
Define median
The middle value in a data set when the data is placed in order
Define mode
The most frequently occuring value
Define range
The difference between the highest and lowest item in a data set. Usually 1 is added as a correction
Define standard deviation
Shows the amount of variation in a data set. It assesses the spread of data around the mean
Define bar chart
A graph used to represent the frequency of data; the categories on the x axis have no fixed order and there is no true zero
Define histogram
The type of frequency distribution in which the number of scores in each category of continuous data are represented by vertical columns. There is a true zero and no spaces between the bars
Define negative skewed distribution
Most of the scores are bunched towards the right. The mode is to the right of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the left
Define normal distribution
A systematic bell-shaped frequency distribution. The mean, median and mode are at midpoint
Define positive skewed distribution
Most of the scores are bunched towards the left. The mode is to the left of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the right
Define skewed distribution
A distribution is skewed if one tail is longer than the other, signifying there are a number of extreme values to one side or the other of the mid score
Define primary data
Information observed or collected directly from first-hand experience
Define secondary data
Information used in a research study that was collected by someone else or for a purpose other than the current one
Define calculated value
The value of a test statistic calculated for a particular data set
Define critical value
In an inferential test the value of the test statistic must be reached to show significance
Define one-tailed test
Form of a test used with a directional hypothesis
Define probability
A numerical measure of the likelihood or chance that certain events will occur
Define sign test
A statistic test to determine the significance of a sample of related items of data
Define significance
A statistical term indicating that the research findings are sufficiently strong for us to accept the research hypothesis under test
Define table of critical values
A table that contains the numbers to judge significance
Define test statistic
A statistical test is used to calculate a numerical value. For each test this value has a specific name
Define two-tailed test
Form of test used with a non-directional hypothesis
Define peer review
The practice of using independent experts to assess the quality and validity of scientific research and academic reports
