Research methods Flashcards
Abstract
The abstract is the first section in a psychological report or journal. It includes a summary of the aims, hypothesis, method, results and conclusions, and thus provides an overview of the entire report.
Aim
The aim of a study is a general statement that explains the purpose of the research.
Bar Chart
A bar chart is used to show frequency data for discrete (separate) variables (NOMINAL DATA). For example, bar charts are used to plot mean scores for conditions A & B separately.
Behavioural Categories
When conducting structured observations, psychologists have to decide which specific behaviours should be examined. They need to operationalise the behaviour through the use of behavioural categories. This involves breaking the target behaviour (e.g. aggression) into components that can be observed and measured (e.g. hitting, kicking).
Bias
Bias means to influence, typically in an unfair direction. In the context of sampling, it means that certain groups may be under- or over-represented in the sample. This then limits the extent to which the findings of the study can be generalised.
BPS Code of Ethics
The BPS Code of Ethics is a document produced by the British Psychological Society, which details the general principles that apply to the use of human participants in all research contexts. It focuses on four major principles: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity.
Case Studies
Case studies are very detailed investigations of an individual or small group of people, usually regarding an unusual phenomenon or biographical event of interest to a research field. Due to a small sample, researchers using the case study method can conduct an in-depth analysis of the individual/group under examination.
Closed Questions
Closed questions, in a questionnaire or interview, restrict the participant to a predetermined set of responses and generate quantitative data.
Coding: Content Analysis
Coding is when the researcher places qualitative data into categories. For example, if the researcher wanted to examine how males and females are portrayed in TV advertisements, they could create a list of categories (e.g. product user, product voice-over) and then count how many occurrences there were, for each gender in each category.
Concurrent Validity
Assessing concurrent validity involves comparing a new test with an existing test (of the same nature) to see if they produce similar results. If both tests produce similar results, then the new test is said to have concurrent validity.
Content Analysis
Content analysis is a method used to analyse qualitative data (non-numerical data). In its most common form, it is a technique that allows a researcher to take qualitative data and to transform it into quantitative data (numerical data). The technique can be used for data in many different formats, for example, interview transcripts, film, and audio recordings.
Correlation Co-Efficient
Psychologists use a statistic called a correlation co-efficient to measure the strength of a correlation (the relationship between two or more variables). A correlation coefficient can range between -1.0 (perfect negative) and +1.0 (perfect positive).
If it aint .8, then it aint great!!
Correlational Study
A correlational study is a non-experimental method used to measure how strong the relationship is between two or more variables. There are two types of correlation: positive correlation (as one variable increases/decreases, so the other variable increases/decreases); and negative correlation (as one variable increases, so the other variable decreases). Psychologists use a statistic called a correlation coefficient to measure this strength.
Counterbalancing
Counterbalancing is a technique used to deal with order effects when using a repeated measures design. With counterbalancing, the participant sample is divided in half, with one half completing the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order. E.g., the first 10 participants would complete condition A followed by condition B, and the remaining 10 participants would complete condition B and then A. Any order effects should be balanced out by this technique.
Critical Values
Critical values are a numerical value which researchers use to determine whether or not their calculated value (from a statistical test) is significant. Some tests are significant when the observed (calculated) value is equal to or greater than the critical value, and for some tests the observed value needs to be less than or equal to the critical value.
HINT - IT WILL ALWAYS TELL YOU UNDER THE TABLE OF CRITICAL VALUES IF IT NEEDS TO BE LESS THAN OR MORE THAN - THIS WILL MAKE SENSE WITH PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Demand Characteristics
Demand characteristics occur when the participants try to make sense of the research and act accordingly to support the aim of the research. Demand characteristics are a issue, as the participants may behave in a way to support the hypothesis, making the results less valid. Conversely, the participant may deliberately try to disrupt the results, a phenomenon known as the ‘screw-you’ effect.
Dependent Variable
In an experiment, the dependent variable (DV) is the variable that the researcher measures. It is the variable that is affected by the manipulation of the independent variable (IV).
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics analyse data to help describe, show or summarise it in a meaningful way. Examples are measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and measures of dispersion (standard deviation and range).
Directional Hypothesis
A directional hypothesis is a one-tailed hypothesis that states the direction of the difference or relationship (e.g. boys are more helpful than girls).
The direction is MORE/LESS/HIGHER etc.
Discussion
The discussion is the section in a report of an investigation where the researcher interprets the results of the study; makes criticism of the methodology used; considers the implications of the results for future research, and suggests real-world applications.
Ecological Validity
Ecological validity is a type of external validity that refers to the extent to which the findings can be generalized to a real-life setting or situation.
Empirical Method
An empirical method involves the use of objective, quantitative observation in a systematically controlled, replicable situation, in order to test or refine a theory.
Event Sampling
Event sampling is used to sample behaviour in observational research. It is where an observer records the number of times a certain behaviour occurs.
EVERYTIME THE ‘EVENT’ OCCURS
Experimental Design
Experimental design describes the way participants are allocated to experimental groups. Types of experimental design include repeated measures, independent groups, and matched pairs designs.
Extraneous Variable
Extraneous variable (EV) is a general term for any variable, other than the IV, that might affect the results (the DV). Where EVs are important enough to cause a change in the DV, they become confounding variables.
Face Validity
Face validity is a simple way of assessing whether or not something measures what it claims to measure, which is concerned with its face value. e.g. does an IQ test look like it tests intelligence? This is often assessed by consulting specialists within that particular area.
Falsifiability
Falsifiability is an important feature of science. It is the principle that a proposition or theory could only be considered scientific if in principle it was possible to establish it as false. One of the criticisms of some branches of psychology, e.g. Freud’s theory, is that they lack falsifiability.
Field Experiment
Field experiments are carried out in natural conditions, in which the researcher manipulates the independent variable (IV) to measure the effect on the dependent variable (DV).
Generalisation
Generalisation is the application of the results from a study, to the wider target population. It is based on the assumption that the findings from the original sample will be the same for everyone else in the target population.
Histogram
A histogram is a type of graph used for continuous data (e.g. age). There should be no space between the bars, because the data is continuous (e.g. 1-9, 10-19, 20-29, etc.)
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a testable prediction about the variables in a study. The hypothesis should always contain the independent variable (IV) and the dependent variable (DV). A hypothesis can be directional (one-tailed) or non-directional (two-tailed).
Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis testing is an important feature of science, as this is how theories are developed and modified. A good theory should generate testable predictions (hypotheses), and if research fails to support the hypotheses, then this suggests that the theory needs to be modified in some way.
Independent Groups (EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN)
Independent groups design is an experimental design where different participants are used in each condition of the experiment.
Random allocation should be used to decide to which condition each participant should be allocated, as this ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to one group or another.
Independent Variable
In an experiment, the independent variable (IV) is the variable that the researcher manipulates and is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable (DV).
Inter-Observer Reliability
It is very important to establish inter-observer reliability when conducting observational research. It refers to the extent to which two or more observers are observing and recording behaviour in the same way.
If it aint .8, it aint great!!
Interval (LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT)
Interval level data is data measured in fixed units with equal distance between points on the scale. For example, temperature measured in centigrade.
Interviews
Interviews are a type of self-report technique that involve an interviewer asking questions (generally on a one-to-one basis) and recording responses. There are different types of interview: structured (where the interviewer has a set list of questions with which to lead the conversation and a framework which will be rigidly adhered to); semi-structured (where the interviewer may have a list of topics or questions, but has extra flexibility to develop the conversation further, should participant responses lead to deeper/more detailed discussion); and unstructured (which are more like a conversation with no set questions).
Introduction
The introduction is the section in a report/journal where the researcher reviews previous research (theories and studies) to provide background information and a rationale for the current research. It should be structured like a funnel (moving from the general to the specific) so that it leads logically to the aims and hypotheses of the current study.
Investigator Effects
Investigator effects are where a researcher (consciously or unconsciously) acts in a way to support their prediction. This can be a particular problem when observing events that can be interpreted in more than one way. (For example, one researcher might interpret children fighting as an act of violence, while another might interpret this as rough and tumble play).
Laboratory Experiment
Laboratory experiments are conducted under controlled conditions, in which the researcher manipulates the independent variable (IV) to measure the effect on the dependent variable (DV).
Levels of Measurement
In psychology, there are different ways that variables can be measured and psychologists typically group measurements into one of four scales: nominal, ordinal, interval.
The simplest level of measurement is nominal data (frequency count data), followed by ordinal (scores in rank order), then interval (a continuous scale with no absolute zero)
Matched Pairs (EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN)
Matched pairs design is an experimental design where pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables, such as age and IQ. One member of each pair is then placed into the experimental group and the other member into the control group.
