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research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

what makes something a science?

A

paradigms, theory construction and hypotheses, falsifiability, replicability, objectivity

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2
Q

what is a paradigm?

A

a clear, distinct concept accepted by the majority of people in a scientific field

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3
Q

what did philosopher Kuhn say?

A

that a paradigm makes something a science

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4
Q

we could argue that some paradigms or psychology are…

A

that the brain influences/ causes behaviour, lab experiments are required to prove theories

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5
Q

what is a paradigm shift?

A

when a group of researchers begin to question an accepted paradigm, and there is too much evidence to ignore, so the paradigm changes

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6
Q

give an example of a paradigm shift

A

the earth is flat -> the earth is round

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7
Q

what does science test?

A

theories

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8
Q

what is a theory?

A

a set of general laws or principles which can explain events or behaviours

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9
Q

theory construction occurs through

A

gathering evidence via direct observation

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10
Q

the role of hypothesis testing is…

A

ensuring it is possible to make clear and precise predictions based off the theory

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11
Q

evidence supporting the theory leads to it being

A

strengthened

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12
Q

evidence refuting the theory leads to it being

A

revised, revisited or rejected

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13
Q

the steps of creating a theory are…

A
  1. formulate a question
  2. construct hypothesis
  3. research and observe
  4. test and experiment
  5. analyse the results and conclude
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14
Q

has psychology has a paradigm shift?

A

it can be argued yes- approaches from psychodynamic to behavioural to cognitive

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15
Q

why might psychology not be seen as a science?

A

too many internal arguments, no paradigm

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16
Q

an example of where psychology met theory construction…

A

Bandura BoBo doll study, 1961

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17
Q

an example of where psychology did not meet theory construction…

A

Freud’s psychodynamic approach

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18
Q

who said that falsifiability made something a science and when?

A

Karl Popper, 1930s

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19
Q

what does falsifiability mean?

A

a scientific theory must have the ability to be proven wrong

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20
Q

nothing can be proven, as we cannot test everyone in the population. however, it is stronger as

A

it hasn’t been proven false yet. it increases in strength the longer that it is around without being disproven.

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21
Q

what is a pseudoscience

A

a science which lacks falsifiability

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22
Q

which element of psychology is a pseudoscience

A

psychodynamic approach, can’t be proven wrong as involves unconscious mind

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23
Q

replication helps to improve…

A

validity

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24
Q

if we are to trust a scientific theory, its findings must be shown to be…

A

repeatable across various contexts and circumstances

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25
Q

replicating findings shows us to what extent they can be…

A

generalised

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26
Q

scientists need to investigate in an - manner

A

objective

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27
Q

objectivity is…

A

something based on facts rather than opinion, which is true for everyone

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28
Q

empirical methods emphasise the importance of…

A

data collection based on direct, sensory experience

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29
Q

a theory cannot claim to be scientific unless it has been…

A

empirically tested and verified

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30
Q

aims are… that describe…

A

general statements, the purpose of an investigation

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31
Q

the independent variable is what we

A

manipulate

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32
Q

the dependent variable is what we

A

measure

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33
Q

the experimental group tests the…

A

independent variable

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34
Q

the compare group allows us to

A

compare the groups

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35
Q

a hypothesis is…

A

a statement that is made at the start of a study that states the relationship between variables

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36
Q

a hypothesis is not a question, it is a

A

testable statement

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37
Q

the 3 types of hypothesis are…

A
  1. directional (one tailed)
  2. non directional (two tailed)
  3. null hypotheses
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38
Q

a directional hypothesis states

A

a particular outcome that the researcher is expecting specific to which group will score higher

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39
Q

a non directional hypothesis states

A

that there will be a difference between the groups, without saying which will be higher

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40
Q

a null hypothesis states that

A

there will be no difference between the two conditions

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41
Q

when do we use directional hypotheses

A

when findings of previous research suggest a particular outcome

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42
Q

when do we use non directional hypotheses

A

when there are no previous findings or previous findings are contradictory

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43
Q

in a good experiment, the independent variable…

A

affects the dependent variable

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44
Q

variables other than the independent variable which may affect the dependent variable must be…

A

controlled or removed

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45
Q

situational means that the variable is

A

in the environment, eg lighting, noise, distractions in the room.

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46
Q

participant means that the variable us

A

in the people, for example age, gender, or previous experience

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47
Q

extraneous variables affect

A

both groups in the study

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48
Q

extraneous variables are usually easy/hard to control

A

easy

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49
Q

extraneous variables may cause

A

difference in the results of all participants, however don’t always ruin the study as we can still compare the groups

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50
Q

confounding variables affect

A

only one condition of the independent variable

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51
Q

confounding variables are a big problem, as they mean that

A

we can’t tell whether the DV has been caused by the IV, or because of the confounding variables

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52
Q

demand characteristics are

A

cues which allow participants to guess the aims of a study, causing them to behave artificially

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53
Q

demand characteristics are - variable

A

an extraneous

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54
Q

demand characteristics can either cause participants to act to - the experimenter, or to -

A

please, sabotage

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55
Q

investigator effects are

A

any unwanted influence of the investigator on the outcome of the research

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56
Q

investigator effects can be… variables

A

extraneous or confounding

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57
Q

randomisation is the use of.. to…

A

chance, reduce investigator effect

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58
Q

standardisation means that

A

to the extent possible, all participants should be subjected to the same environment and information

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59
Q

experimental designs refers to

A

the way in which participants are used in experiments

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60
Q

there are three experimental designs which are

A
  1. independent groups
  2. repeated measures
  3. matched pairs
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61
Q

independent groups are where

A

participants are put into 2 groups, and each group experiences a different condition

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62
Q

independent groups strengths:

A
  • no order effects

- less chance of demand characteristics as participants only experience one condition

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63
Q

independent groups weaknesses:

A
  • participant variables make it very hard to definitely say that the DV was caused by the IV, not participant variables
  • less economical as more participants needed
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64
Q

repeated measures are where

A

one group of participants experience both conditions, and the same person is compared to themselves

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65
Q

repeated measures weaknesses:

A
  • order effects can occur

- demand characteristics are more likely to occur as participants can guess the aims of the study more easily

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66
Q

order effects are where

A

the 2nd test is changed either by boredom or by practise.

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67
Q

order effects are - variables

A

confounding

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68
Q

repeated measures strengths:

A
  • more economical

- no participant variables

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69
Q

matched pairs are where participants complete - condition, in -

A

one, pairs matched together based on a variable relevant to the study

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70
Q

in matched pairs, pairs are split and - into groups

A

randomly allocated

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71
Q

matched pairs strengths:

A
  • less demand characteristics as participants only experience one condition
  • no order effects
  • far less problems with participant variables
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72
Q

matched pairs weaknesses:

A
  • very time consuming
73
Q

participants that form part of research studies are selected through the process of…

A

sampling

74
Q

a population is a large group of people that

A

a researcher is interested in studying

75
Q

a target population is a

A

subset of a larger population

76
Q

a researcher will select a small group from their target population to study- this is the

A

sample

77
Q

the sample needs to be - of the target population

A

representative

78
Q

if the sample is not representative of the target population, then the findings of the study cannot be

A

generalised

79
Q

the 5 types of sampling are…

A

volunteer, opportunity, random, systematic and stratified

80
Q

in volunteer sampling, participants are selected through

A

self selection

81
Q

an example of volunteer sampling is

A

Asch’s study

82
Q

strength of volunteer samples

A

easy and not time consuming

83
Q

weakness of volunteer sample

A

volunteer bias- study attracts a certain type of person who is willing to participate in a study, and findings may not be generalisable

84
Q

in opportunity sampling, participants are selected through

A

the researchers asking whoever is around them at the time of the study

85
Q

opportunity sampling strength

A

easy and not time consuming

86
Q

2 weaknesses of opportunity sampling

A
  • all participants drawn from the same place, may not be representative, generalisation issues
  • researcher bias can occur
87
Q

participants in random sampling are selected through the process of

A

a complete list of all members of the target population is created, members are assigned a number and then numbers are drawn at random

88
Q

strength of random sampling is

A

completely free from researcher bias

89
Q

3 weaknesses of random sampling is

A
  • difficult
  • time consuming
  • can still create an unrepresentative sample
90
Q

a sampling frame is

A

a list of members in the target population organised in a relevant format

91
Q

in systematic sampling, participants are selected

A

as every nth member in a sampling frame, eg every 3rd person on the register

92
Q

strength of systematic sampling is

A

no researcher bias

93
Q

a weakness of systematic sampling is

A

sample may still be unrepresentative

94
Q

strata are

A

sub groups in a target population

95
Q

in stratified sampling the sample reflects the

A

proportions of strata within the target population

96
Q

the process of stratifies sampling is

A

identifying the strata, work out the proportion of the target population they make, participants for each stratum are selected with random sampling

97
Q

2 strengths of stratifies sampling are

A
  • no researcher bias

- produces a representative sample which can be generalised confidently

98
Q

a weakness of stratified sampling is

A
  • very difficult and time consuming
99
Q

the 5 ethical issues in psychology are

A

informed consent, deception, privacy, protection from harm and confidentiality

100
Q

to participate in studies under 16s need

A

parental consent

101
Q

informed consent means that people have the right to

A

know what they are consenting to before they consent to the study

102
Q

informed consent is a problem in psychology as it leads to

A

demand characteristics and artificial behaviour

103
Q

retrospective consent is where

A

the researchers get consent after the study is done

104
Q

presumptive consent is where

A

researchers ask a similar group of people if they would consent to the study

105
Q

deception involves

A

lying to or withholding information fro participants

106
Q

active deception is where

A

researchers lie about the study

107
Q

passive deception is where

A

information about the study is withheld from participants

108
Q

in psychology deception means that participants have the right to

A

know what they are doing in the study

109
Q

psychologists have to use some deception to avoid

A

demand characteristics

110
Q

psychologists can only deceive

A

when it is absolutely necessary for the study

111
Q

if participants are deceived, they have he right to 2 things

A
  1. a debrief after the study

2. their data to be destroyed if they wish

112
Q

confidentiality is a legal right from the

A

data protection act

113
Q

in studies, any identifying data must be

A

protected and not published

114
Q

to maintain confidentiality, researchers must

A

use a coding system to avoid using participant names, avoid recording any personal information of participants

115
Q

protection from harm means that participants have the

right

A

not to come to any physical or psychological harm during a study

116
Q

participants should leave in the same

A

state that they arrived in

117
Q

to follow protection from harm psychologists should

A
  • conduct a pilot study to identify risks

- make participants aware of their right to leave at any point

118
Q

the limitations of protection from harm are

A

that we can’t always identify the risks of a study

119
Q

privacy means that people have a right not to

A

be observed where they wouldn’t expect it

120
Q

the 3 ways to respect privacy are…

A
  • respect if participants don’t want to answer sensitive questions
  • observe people in public places only
  • get informed consent
121
Q

a limitation of privacy is

A

participants may behave artificially if they know they are being observed

122
Q

what are the 4 types of experiment

A

lab experiment, field experiment, natural experiment and quasi experiment

123
Q

lab experiments are conducted in

A

a highly controlled environment

124
Q

2 strengths of lab experiments are

A
  • control over extraneous variables increasing internal validity
  • more replicable, so further studies can increase validity
125
Q

2 weaknesses of lab experiments are

A
  • lack mundane reality, causing participants to act artificially and decreasing internal validity
  • leads to more demand characteristics
126
Q

in field experiments, the independent variable is

A

manipulated by the researchers in a natural setting

127
Q

a strength of field experiments is

A

they have mundane realism, so are more authentic, increasing the validity of the studies

128
Q

two weaknesses of field experiments are

A
  • some control of extraneous variables lost, reducing validity as findings can’t be proven to be consistent
  • ethical issues if participants don’t consent to the study
129
Q

in natural experiments, reseachers take advantage of

A

naturally occurring independent variables

130
Q

2 strengths of natural experiments are

A
  • allow studies to take place which may otherwise be rejected
  • high external validity as behaviour is not at all artificial
131
Q

2 weaknesses of natural experiments are

A
  • only occur very occasionally, lack utility

- participants not randomly allocated within independent groups, confounding variables can occur

132
Q

quasi experiments use independent variables

A

which exist within the population

133
Q

strength of quasi experiment

A

high control over extraneous variables, higher internal validity

134
Q

weakness of quasi experiment

A

participants not randomly allocated, confounding variables can occur

135
Q

quantitative data is expressed

A

numerically

136
Q

quantitative data is gathered through

A

empirical observations

137
Q

quantitative data strengths

A
  • easy to analyse
  • easy to compare
  • more objective
138
Q

quantitative data weaknesses

A
  • narrower in detail, leading to less external validity

- may not represent daily life

139
Q

qualitative data is expressed

A

verbally

140
Q

qualitative data strengths

A
  • rich in detail, leading to greater external validity
141
Q

qualitative data weaknesses

A
  • difficult to analyse

- creates subjectivity and can be open to researcher bias

142
Q

primary data is collected by

A

the researcher specifically for the study

143
Q

primary data strengths

A
  • data specific to the research

- questions targeted to gather information needed

144
Q

primary data weaknesses

A
  • time consuming

- requires more planning and consideration

145
Q

secondary data is collected by

A

other researchers before the study

146
Q

secondary data strengths

A
  • less expensive

- requires less planning and consideration

147
Q

secondary data weaknesses

A
  • variation is quality and accuracy of data

- data may not meet specific needs of researcher, challenging validity of conclusions

148
Q

mean strengths

A
  • quick and easy to calculate

- most sensitive measure, more representative of the whole data set

149
Q

mean weakness

A
  • highly affected by abnormal values
150
Q

median strengths

A
  • easy to calculate

- not affected by abnormal values

151
Q

median weaknesses

A
  • not very sensitive, so less representative of the whole data set
152
Q

mode strengths

A
  • easy to calculate

- has to be used with certain data sets

153
Q

mode weaknesses

A
  • not representative of whole data set

- can be multiple modes, not at all useful then

154
Q

range weakness

A

-only accounts for extreme values, not representative of whole data set

155
Q

define correlation

A

a relationship between two variables where changes in one variable go along with changes in the other

156
Q

correlations have no

A

independent or dependent variables

157
Q

a positive correlation means that

A

as one variable increases so does the other

158
Q

a negative correlation means that

A

as one variable increases the other decreases

159
Q

a correlation coefficient is a

A

mathematical value for a correlation

160
Q

correlations coefficient is between

A

-1 and +1

161
Q

strong correlations have values more extreme than

A

0.5 or -0.5

162
Q

the closer to 0 the correlation coefficient is, the - the correlation is

A

weaker

163
Q

a non directional correlational hypothesis says

A

that there will be a significant relationship between A and B

164
Q

a directional correlational hypothesis says

A

that there will be a significant positive/ negative relationship between A and B

165
Q

correlations demonstrate that

A

there may be a relationship between two sets of data

166
Q

correlations do NOT demonstrate

A

that one of the factors causes the other

167
Q

which 4 things can cause a correlation?

A
  1. A causes B
  2. B causes A
  3. external factor causes A and B
  4. the correlation is completely random and the factors are not related at all
168
Q

2 strengths of correlations are

A
  1. they can be used to study variables that would be unethical to manipulate, avoiding ethical issues
  2. they are a good starting point for experiments, researchers can check if there is any link between factors before spending time and money researching further
169
Q

an unstructured observation means that

A

the researcher records everything they see

170
Q

unstructured observations are usually done with

A

small scale observations

171
Q

structured observations are where

A

quantified observations using a predetermined list of behaviours and sampling methods are made

172
Q

structured observations strengths

A
  1. makes recording data much easier and more systematic

2. produces quantitative data which is easier to analyse

173
Q

structured observations weaknesses

A
  1. data is far less detailed compared to unstructured observations
174
Q

unstructured observations strengths

A
  1. provide much more detailed data
175
Q

unstructured observations weaknesses

A
  1. greater risk of observer bias, as the researcher doesn’t have objective categories to look for
176
Q

which type of observation is better?

A

it depends on the type of research being conducted

177
Q

behavioural categories are

A

clearly defined, precise target behaviours used to measure a wider concept

178
Q

behavioural categories example of affection

A

smiling, kissing or hugging

179
Q

behavioural categories must be

A

unambiguous, observable, self-evident, exclusive

psychology module 6 research methods (1 decks)

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