research methods Flashcards
1
Q
what is an aim?
A
a general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate - purpose of the study
2
Q
what is a hypothesis? what is a directional and non-directional hypothesis?
A
- statement made at start of a study and clearly describes relationship between variables as stated by a theory
- needs to make it easy to tell what IV and DV are
- directional - researcher makes clear sort of difference anticipated between 2 conditions or two groups of people - include words like more/less, higher/lower, faster/slower
- non-directional - simply states difference between conditions/groups
3
Q
what are independent and dependent variables? how should other variables potentially affecting the DV be treated? why?
A
- in experiment - researcher manipulates independent variable + records/measures effect of change on dependent variable
- all other variables that might potentially affect DV should remain constant in a properly run experiment
- so researcher can be confident any change in DV due to IV alone
4
Q
why should we check levels of IV? how would we?
A
- in terms of energy drink. if simply gave ptps speedup, how would we know how talkative they were?
- in order to test need different experimental conditions - need a comparison
- could either: compare ptps talkativeness before + after drinking
- compare two groups: those who drink energy drink + those who drink water
- the two levels of IV - control condition (no energy drink/drink of water) and experimental condition (energy drink)
5
Q
how do you operationalise variables in a hypothesis?
A
- make the variables measurables
- ex. after drinking 300ml of energy drink, ptps say more words in next 5 mins than ptps who drink 300ml water
6
Q
what are extraneous variables? what are examples? what are their effects?
A
- independent variable is manipulated to see how it affects the DV
- only thing that should affect DV is IV
- any other variables that might potentially interfere with IV should be controlled/removed
- additional unwanted variables called EV
- age of ptps
- lighting in lab
- ‘nuisance variables’ do not confound findings - may just make it harder to detect result
7
Q
what are confounding variables?
A
- do change systematically with IV
- can’t tell if any change in DV due to IV or confounding variable (almost like a second unintended IV)
8
Q
what are demand characteristics?
A
- any cue from researcher/from research situation - may be interpreted by ptps as revealing purpose of investigation
- may lead ptp changing behaviour within research situation
- may act in a way they think is expected + overperform (please-U effect) or opposite to sabotage results (screw-U effect)
- unnatural ptp behaviour - extraneous variable may affect DV
9
Q
what are investigator effects?
A
- any effect of investigator’s behaviour (conscious/unconscious) on research outcome (DV)
- can include everything from design of study to selection of + interaction with ptps during research process
10
Q
what is randomisation?
A
- minimise effect of extraneous/conf variables on outcome
- use of chance methods to reduce researcher’s unconcscious bias when designing investigation
- controls investigator effects
- in exp where ptps involved in number of conds - order of conds should be randomly determined
- if all ptps were to take part in all conds - order of completion would need to be randomised for each ptp
11
Q
what is standardisation?
A
- all ptps should be subject to same environment, info + experience
- to ensure all procedures standardised - list of exactly what will be done in the study
- standardised instructuctions that are read to each ptp
- such standardisation means non-standardised changes in procedure do not act as extraneous variables
12
Q
what is an experimental design?
A
different ways in which ptp’s can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions
13
Q
what are the different experimental designs?
A
- independent groups design
- repeated measures
- matched pairs
14
Q
what is an independent groups design?
A
- when two seperate groups of ptp’s experience two different conditions of the experiment
- if there are two levels of the IV - means all ptps experience one level of IV only
- performance of two groups then compared
15
Q
what is an example of an independent group?
A
- one group of ptp drinking energy drink (condition A - experimental condition)
- a different group (group2) drinking water (condition B - control condition)
- performance compared : mean number of words spoken in the 5 min period after drinking for each group/condition
16
Q
what is a repeated measures design? use the energy drink example
A
- all ptp’s experience both conditions of experiment
- ex. each ptp would first experience condition A (energy drink condition)
- ptp would then later be tested again in condition B (glass of water condition, control condition)
- following this, the two mean scores from both conditions would be compared to see if there was a difference
17
Q
what is a matched pairs design?
A
- ptp’s paired together on a variable/variables relevant to experiment
- ex. memory study - might be matched on IQ - good indicator on ability to recall
- two ptps with first + second highest IQ paired together + the one with 3rd and 4th highest and so on
- then one ptp from each pair allocated to a different condition of the experiment
- attempt to control for the confounding variable + ptp variables
18
Q
how would matched pairs be used in the energy drink example?
A
- observe ptp’s interacting in a room before ex begins + select 2 which most chattiest - one pair placed in condition A + other condition B and so on
- then ex will run in same way as indep group design
19
Q
what is an issue with independent groups when it comes to ptp variables? how can it be dealt with. what is an issue of it compared to RMD?
A
- ptp’s who occupy the different groups not the same in terms of ptp variables
- if researcher finds a mean difference between groups on dependent variable - may be more to do with ptp variables than effects of IV
- may act as confounding variable - reducing validity
- to deal with it they use random allocation
- less economical than repeated measures - each ptp contributes a single result only - twice as many ptp needed to produce equivalent data to that collected in a repeated measures design - increases time + money spent on recruiting ptp
20
Q
what are strengths of independent groups? compared to RMD?
A
- order effects not a problem - whereas problem for repeated measures design
- ptp’s less likely to guess aims
21
Q
what are the issues of the RMD? explain effects of order using energy drink example. how else can order effects happen? how can an order effect be a confounding variable?
A
- each ptp has to do at least two tasks + order of these tasks may be significant (order effects)
- energy drink: having energy drink first may have a continuing effect when ptp drinks water afterwards
- could arise because repeating two tasks could create boredom/fatigue - might cause deterioration in performance on second task - order matters
- alternatively - ptps performance may improve through effects of practice - esp on a skill-based task - in this case ptps will perform better on second task - order effect confounding variable
22
Q
how is demand characteristics a problem for RMD?
A
- more likely ptp will work out aim of the study when experience all conditions of experiment
- hence why DC tend to be more of a feature of RMD than indep groups
23
Q
what is a strength of RMD?
A
- ptp variables controlled - therefore higher validity
- fewer ptp needed (less time recruiting)
24
Q
what are strengths of matched pairs?
A
ptp only take part in single condition - order effects less of a problem
25
Q
what are disadvantages of matched pairs?
A
- although some attempts to reduce ptp variables - ptp can never be matched exactly - even when identical twins used - will be important differences between them may affect DV
- matching may be time-consuming + expensive - particularly if pre-test required - less economical than other designs
26
Q
what are the different types of experiments?
A
- laboratory experiments
- field experiments
- natural experiments
- quasi-experiments
27
Q
what is a laboratory experiment?
A
- conducted in highly controlled environments
- not always a lab
28
Q
what are the strengths of a lab experiment?
A
- high control over confoundings + extraneous variables
- ensure effects on DV result of manipulation of IV - more certain about demonstrating cause + effect (high internal validity)
- replication more possible than in other types of ex because of high level of control - ensures new extraneous variables not introduced when repeating an experiment
- replication vital to check results of study - whether findings valid + not just one-off
29
Q
what are the limitations of a lab study?
A
- may lack generlisability - lab environment may be rather artificial + not like everyday life
- ptp’s behaviour may be different + cannot be generalised beyond research setting (low external validity)
- ptps usually aware being tested in lab ex (DC)
- tasks may not represent every day experience (low mundane realism)
30
Q
what is a field experiment?
A
- IV manipulated in a natural - more everyday setting
- researcher goes to ptp’s usual environment rather than going to a researcher’s lab
- researcher manipulates the IV + records the effect on the DV
31
Q
what are the strengths of a filed experiment?
A
- higher mundane realism than lab experiments - environment more natural - may produce behaviour which is more valid + authentic
- especially case as ptps may be unaware they are being studies (high external validity)
32
Q
what are the limitations of a field experiment?
A
- loss of control over CVs and EVs - means cause + effect between IV and DV in field studies may be much more difficult to establish + precise replication often not possible
- ethical issues - ptp unaware they are being studied - cannot give consent to being in studies + such research constitute to invasion of privacy
33
Q
what are natural experiments?
A
- takes advantage of pre-existing IV in environment
- lab/field experiment insofar as the researcher measures effect of IV/DV - researcher no control over IV + cannot change - someone/something else causes IV to vary
(ex before/after natural disaster) - iv that is natural not necessarily setting - may even be tested in lab
- DV may also be naturally occurring/ devised by experimenter + then measures in field/lab
34
Q
what are the strengths of a natural experiment?
A
- provide opportunity for research may not otherwise be undertaken for practical/ethical reasons
- high external validity - involve study of realworld problems as they happen . ex effects of natural disaster on stress levels
35
Q
what are the limitations of a natural experiement?
A
- naturally occurring event may only happen very rarely - reducing opportunities for research
- ptps maynot be randomly allocated to experimental conditions (when there is an IGD) - may mean less sure whether IV affected DV
- such research may be conducted in a lab - lack realism + DC
36
Q
what is a quasi-experiment/
A
- researcher takes advantage of a pre-existing IV within a person
- does not manipulate IV
- DV may be naturally occurring/ devised by experimenter + measured in field/lab
37
Q
what are the strengths of a quasi-experiment?
A
- often carried out under controlled conditions - share from strengths of a lab ex (replication)
38
Q
what are limitations of a quasi-experiment?
A
- like natural experiments - cannot randomly allocate ptp to conditions - therefore may be CVs
- both quasi + natural - IV not deliberately changed by researcher - cannot claim IV caused any observed change
39
Q
what is a population?
A
- large group of individuals that particular researcher interested in studying
- often called target population - subset of general pop
40
Q
what is a sample?
A
- practical + economic reasons - usually not possible to include all members of target pop - so researcher selects smaller group - sample
- ideally representative - so generalisation of findings become possible
- however difficult to represent pop due to diversity - so majority - some degree of bias
41
Q
what are the sampling techniques which aim to produce a representative sample?
A
- random sample
- systematic sample
- stratified sample
- opportunity sample
- volunteer sample
42
Q
what is a random sample?
A
- sophisticated form of sampling - all members of target pop - equal chance of being selected
- first step is to obtain complete list of all members of target pop - second all names on list assigned number
- finally - actual sample selected through use of some lottery method
43
Q
what is a systematic sample?
A
- when ever nth member of the target pop is selected - ex every 3rd house on a street
- sampling frame produced - list of people in target pop organised into, for instance, alphabetical order
- sampling system nominated (every 3rf, 6th etc person)
- may begin from a randomly determined start to reduce bias
- researcher then works through sampling frame until sample complete
44
Q
what is a stratified example?
A
- sophisticated form of sampling in which composition of sample reflects proportions of people in certain subgroups (strata) within target pop/wider pop
- researcher first identifies different strata that make up the pop
- proportions needed for sample to be representative worked out
- finally ptps that make up each stratum selected using random sampling
45
Q
what is an opportunity sample?
A
- given that representative samples of target pops difficult to obtain
- many researchers simply select anyone who happens to be willing + available
- ask whoever is around at the time of their study
- ex. in street
46
Q
what is a volunteer sample?
A
- involves ptp selecting themselves to be part of sample (also referred to as self-reflection)
- researcher may place advert in newspaper
47
Q
what are advantages of a random sample?
A
- potentially unbiased - confounding/extraneous variables should be equally divided between different groups - enhancing internal validity
48
Q
what are the disadvantages of a random sample?
A
- difficult + time-consuming to conduct - complete list of target pop may be difficult to obtain
- may end up with a sample that is still unrepresentative
- selected ptps may refuse to take part (end up with something more like a volunteer sample
49
Q
what are the disadvantages of a systematic sample?
A
- objective
- once system for selection established - researcher no influence over who is chosen
- method time-consuming - and in the end ptp may refuse to take part resulting in a volunteer sample
50
Q
what are the advantages of a stratified sample?
A
- produces a representative sample - designed to accurately reflect composition of population - generalisation of findings possible
51
Q
what are the disadvantages of a stratified sample?
A
- not perfect
- identified strata cannot reflect all the ways people are different - complete representation of target pop not possible
52
Q
what are the advantages of an opportunity sample?
A
- convenient - much less costly in terms of time + money compared to ex. random
- as list of target pop not required + no need to divide pop into different strata as there is in stratified sampling
53
Q
what are the disadvantages of an opportunity sample?
A
- suffers from two forms of bias
- sample unrepresentative of target pop - drawn from a very specific area - findings cant be generalised to the target population
- researcher has complete control over selection of ptps - researcher bias may be possible
54
Q
what are the advantages of a volunteer example?
A
- collecting volunteer sample easy
- minimal input from researcher - less time-consuming than other forms of sampling
- ends up with ptps who are more engaged than someone stopped on the street
55
Q
what are the disadvantages of a volunteer sample?
A
- volunteer bias
- asking volunteers may attract a certain ‘profile’ of person - curios + more likely to try to please researcher (might affect how far findings can be generalised)
56
Q
what are ethical problems that face ptps and and researchers face?
A
- informed consent
- deception
- protection from harm
- privacy + confidentiality
57
Q
what is informed consent?
A
- prospective ptps in studies should know what they are getting into
- informed consent making ptps aware of aims of research, procedures + their rights (including right to withdraw) + what data will be used for
- ptps then make informed judgement whether or not to take part without being coerced/feeling obliged
- but asking for informed consent may make study meaningless - ptps behaviour not ‘natural’ - know aims of study
58
Q
what is deception?
A
- deliberately miselading + withholding info from ptp
- ptp’s who have not received adequate info when agreed to take part - cannot be said to give informed consent
- occasions when can be justified - if dont cause distress
59
Q
what is protection from harm?
A
- must be protected from physical + psychological harm
- same mental state they joined the study with
- important feature of this is ptp being reminded of the fact they have right to withdraw from investigation at any point
60
Q
what is privacy and confidentiality?
A
- right to control info about themselves
- confidentiality - refers to our right - to have any personal data protected
- right to privacy extends to the area where the study took place - institutions/geographical locations not named
61
Q
what is the bps code of conduct?
A
- ethical guidelines - have professional duty to observe these guidelines when conducting research - may lose their job
- guidelines implemented by ethics committee in research institutions who often use a cost-benefit approach to determine whether particular research proposals are ethically acceptable
62
Q
how do researchers deal with informed consent?
A
- ptp should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all relevant info that might affect their decision to participate
- assuming ptp agees - this is then signed
- for investigations involving under 16 - parental consent
63
Q
how should researchers deal with deception + protection from harm?
A
- at end ptp should be given full debrief - made aware of true aims of investigation + any details not supplied during study
- also told what data will be used for + must be given the right to withdraw during study + right to withhold data
- must be reassured their behaviour was typical during investigation - if ever subject to anything researcher should provide any counselling
64
Q
how should researchers deal with confidentiality?
A
a - if personal details held - must be protected
- more usual to maintain anonymity - usually refer to ptp as initials/numbers
- standard practice - during briefing+debriefing - ptp reminded data will be protected throughout process + told data will not be shared to other researchers
65
Q
what are the different types of consent?
A
- presumptive - rather ptp themselves - given by a similar group of people
- prior general consent - ptp gives permission to take part in a number of different studies - including one that will inlove deception - consenting to be deceive
- retrospective consent - ptp asked for their consent after taking part - may have been deceived/ not been aware of participation
