Research methods

Question 1

Independent variable- definition and example

Answer 1

-This is the variable that is manipulated by the
researcher.
- Participants consume either
0.5 units or 2 units of alcohol.

Question 2

Dependent variable - definition and example

Answer 2

This is the variable that is measured.
Reaction time in a driving simulator is measured

Question 3

Extraneous variable definition and example

Answer 3

A variable (other than the IV) that might affect your DV.
These are identified (as much as possible) at the start of the study and controlled for.
If they are not controlled for they can become confounding variables.
Room temperature, time of
day, task given.
For example if some participants used the driving simulator in the morning and others in the afternoon, this could be a factor that influences concentration and reaction time

Question 4

Confounding variable definition and example

Answer 4

type of extraneous variable that you did not control for that does interact with the IV and affect the DV (it becomes a further unintended IV).
We do not want these confounding variables to affect the DV, as we are interested in the affect the IV has on the DV.
Therefore, researchers try to control (stop) the confounding variables as much as they can.
Number of years driving experience.
This is likely to influence reaction time, with people with more driving experience anticipating hazards and reacting more quickly.

Question 5

What must we do to variables

Answer 5

Operationalisation of variables:
This refers to how the variables are made measurable. It is not enough to use vague terms, as this makes replication (somebody else repeating your experiment) difficult.
Therefore operationalisation refers to drawing out the most relevant elements of the variables so we can measure them.
For example, intelligence is a very broad term. To make it measurable we could use a specific intelligence test that measures certain elements of personality.
Memory is also a broad term, this could refer to what you can remember from the day before, the week before or your whole life. To make this measurable the researcher could give participants a list of 20 words to remember and count how many were successfully remembered

Question 6

Name 2 types of extraneous/confounding vraiables

Answer 6

• Demand characteristics
• Investigator effects

Question 7

Demand characteristics- describe, and say how you could reduce effects

Answer 7

-The tendency of participants to use cues in an experiment to work out how the experimenter expects
them to behave, thus participants behave in an experiment in the way they think the researcher wants
them to behave.
- This change in behaviour can be conscious or unconscious and can refer to other changes in behaviour
such as nerves or purposely trying to sabotage the results. If participants’ behaviour is not natural in
the study, this can be a confounding variable, giving you inaccurate results and subsequently reducing internal validity.

How to reduce demand characteristics:
• Use different participants in each condition (independent groups) so that they are not exposed
to each condition of the IV and do not have the opportunity to guess the aims of the research.
• Single-blind technique where the participant does not know which condition of the experiment
(control or experimental) they are assigned to

Question 8

Investigator effects- describe and say how you could reduce effects

Answer 8

• The researcher should try to remain objective throughout the research and to avoid influencing the outcome of the research in any way. If the experimenter does exert an influence (be it conscious or
  unconscious) then they are introducing investigator effects.
  • Coolican (2006) - Expectation effects can occur where a researcher is deeply committed to achieving a
  particular outcome. This may be a problem when observing events that can be interpreted in more
  than one way (e.g. children fighting or rough and tumble play?!).
  • In naturalistic observational studies, the presence of the observer can cause participants to behave in ways that are different from their normal behaviour – for example, participant’s behaviour may be more restrained or exuberant than usual.
  • When research is carried out using questionnaire surveys or interviews, then many
  different aspects of the investigator may have an influence, including the investigator’s age,
  gender, ethnic group, appearance, facial expressions and communication style. The
  way in which an investigator asks a question may lead a participant to give the answer the
  investigator ‘wants’. Alternatively, the way the investigator responds to a participant may
  encourage some participants more than others. Research has found that males are more pleasant,
  friendly and encouraging with female participants than with other male participants (Rosenthal,
  1966).
  If the investigator is influencing the results somehow, then this means the results are not a true
  reflection of behaviour and can reduce internal validity.

How to reduce investigator effects:
• To use a double-blind technique
where neither the researcher nor the participants know the aims and/or conditions of the study. This also helps to reduce demand characteristics.

Question 9

Name 2 types of controll

Answer 9

• Random allocation and counterbalancing
• Randomisation and standardisation

Question 10

Describe random allocation, give example

Answer 10

This is used in an independent groups design in an attempt to
control for participant variables. The aim is that each participant has the same chance of being allocated to either condition of the IV. For example – You can put
all of the participants’ names into a hat and every other name drawn is in condition A.

Question 11

Describe counterbalancing, give example

Answer 11

This is used in a repeated measures design and it splits participants so that
they complete the different levels of the IV in a different order. The aim is to balance out any
differences between participants results that are due to the order they have taken the test, i.e. it
controls the impact of order effects and distributes them evenly across both conditions

For example- A researcher was investigating whether women are better at reading without or with glasses. The researcher got the participants to complete a reading
test without wearing glasses and then repeat the test with glasses; they found that participants did better in the second condition (with).
- counterbalanced by half of PPs reading with glasses first and thee other half reading without first

Question 12

Describe randomisation, give example

Answer 12

Randomisation involves adopting a strategy for randomly determining the order of presentation of
experimental conditions by, for example drawing lots or tossing a coin.

Randomisation can also be used as a technique for deciding the order of presentation of, for example, individual stimuli within a condition.
For example:
suppose an investigation involves each participant rating 20 photographs for their
attractiveness. If all participants experience the same presentation order, then some rating biases might occur. E.g. the photo presented first is likely to
be given an average rating by many participants, simply because they are rating this photo in an average manner because they feel they may wish to use more extreme
ratings in either direction for subsequent photos

Question 13

Describe standardisation, give example

Answer 13

This means that all participants in a study have exactly the same experience, so that individual experience does not cause some participants to engage with the study differently.
The procedure therefore needs to be standardised to ensure all participants share the same experience- means non-standardised changes in procedure don’t act as confounding variables.
For example, having written instructions so all participants
receive the same information and any error in interpretation will affect all participants in all conditions.

Question 14

Name 4 types of experiment

Answer 14

• laboratory
• field
• natural
• Quasi

Question 15

Laboratory experiments- describe

Answer 15

3 Key factors:

Direct manipulation of an independent variable (IV):
The experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV, both need to be operationalised

Control:
The experimenter has high levels of control and aims to control extraneous/confounding
variables meaning that the only difference between the two conditions is the IV. A control group also acts as a control, here there is no manipulation of the IV and the DV is measured, this allows a baseline measurement for comparison. High levels of control allow for cause and effect to be established between the IV and the DV.

Randomisation:
In a true experiment, participants are randomly allocated to conditions, for example
by tossing a coin or by choosing names from a hat. This is to reduce any extraneous variables
associated with the participants from affecting the DV. Other factors are randomised, such as the
order stimuli are presented to participants and the order the participants take part. Counterbalancing also uses randomisation

Question 16

Laboratory experiments- strengths

Answer 16

A strength of using laboratory experiments are that the procedure can be easily replicated. :
-This is because of the high levels of control in laboratory experiments
-for example the clear
operationalisation of the IV and DV, the control of extraneous variables and the standardisation of materials.
- This is a strength as replication allows experiments to check for reliability and whether the results are consistent.

A further strength is the internal validity is high in laboratory experiments:
- This is because it is far easier to control potential confounding variables in the laboratory than in any other setting or with any other research method.
-This means that we can be sure that the only factor affecting the
DV is the IV.
- This is a strength as it increases the ability to
establish cause (IV) and effect (DV) between the variables being measured.

Question 17

Laboratory experiments- weaknesses

Answer 17

Ecological validity- bad due to controll:
- high levels of control, with
specified narrowly defined operationalised IVs and DVs are likely to become artificial and
therefore recognisably different from real-life situations.
- lack generalisability- low external validity
- This is a weakness because it questions the accuracy of the results and their ability to measure the complexity of human behaviour, the emotions and motives behind our actions

Demand characteristics:
- These are particularly an issue in laboratory research as participants know they are being researched and may feel even more inclined to
act in a way they think is required. - - After all, these participants have actively given up their time to participate in the research.
- This is an issue as if participants are showing demand characteristics, the measurement of
the DV is not a true reflection of behaviour and this reduces the internal validity of the
findings as we cannot be sure we measured what we set out to measure.

Mundane realism:
- tasks may not represent everyday experience- e.g. recalling random lists of words in memory experiment

Question 18

Field experiments- describe

Answer 18

• Field experiments are experimental investigations carried out in the natural environment, e.g. in homes, schools or on the street. They attempt to improve the realism of the research.
▪ They are used in situations where it is considered particularly important for research to take
account of the natural environment.
▪ The researcher still manipulates the independent variable and measures the dependent
variable. The researcher also attempts to control extraneous variables as much as possible.
▪ Cause (IV) and effect (DV) can be established and participants are usually unaware that they are participating in an experiment

Question 19

Field experiments- strengths

Answer 19

Better ecological validity than labs:
take place in the natural environment- behaviour more likely to be representative of behaviour outside of experiment
- strength as can be more confident when generalising to situations outside experiment

Demand characteristics lower:
- PPs don’t now they’re taking part in research
- means they can’t guess researchers aims or amend behaviour during research
- strength as increases the internal validity of the results- can be more confident that DV has measured what it set out to measure

Better mundane realism:
- tasks realistic as in real world

Question 20

Field experiments limitations

Answer 20

Time-consuming:
- e.g. may only be small number of people around at certain times or may not be practical to set the experiment up the amount of times necessary
- issue as it may lead to less PPS being gathered, or may mean you only get PPs who go to the area where research is happening
- reduces population validity- hard to generalise to outside of population used

Hard to get full control over extraneous variables:
- natural environment- hard to predict everything that may occur and put controls in place
- may be uncontrolled extraneous variables impact on IV and affecting DV
- reduces confidence establishing cause and effect- reducing internal validity
- also makes replication an issue

Ethics:
- PPs not aware they’re being studied
- cant consent to being studied- research may constitute invasion of privacy

Question 21

Describe natural experiments

Answer 21

▪ Natural experiments take advantage of naturally occurring events which create a change, over which the researcher has no direct control over the IV. The researcher
makes use of naturally occurring differences in the independent variable.
▪ This means the participants are already assigned to a condition of the IV, for example if you
were researching the impact of the smoking ban and comparing smoking levels before and
after. Here the IV would have occurred/made the change even if the research was not taking
place – it is natural. Thus, participants are not randomly assigned to conditions.
▪ Sometimes due to ethical and practical reasons, this is the only experiment suitable
- may still happen in labs- it is the IV that is natural
- DV may also be natural- e.g. exam results

Question 22

Strengths of natural expeiments

Answer 22

High ecological validity:
- This is because they take place in the natural surroundings of participants, meaning that the
behaviour measured is likely to be representative of behaviour outside of the experiment.
- This is a strength as it means we can be more confident generalising the results to situations other than the experiment.
- high external validity as involves study of real world issues and problems as they happen e.g. effects of natural disaster on stress levels

Low demand characteristics:
- This is because in a natural experiment the participants do not know they are taking part in
the research.
- This means they are not able to guess the researcher’s aims, nor will they amend their behaviour during the research.
- This is a strength as it increases the internal validity of the results, as we can be more confident
that our DV has measured what it set out to measure.

Allows study of things not otherwise ethical/practical:
- e.g. Rutters Romanian Orphan study

Question 23

Limitations of natural experiments

Answer 23

Low chances of desired behaviour being displayed:
As the researcher has no control over the situation, they are unable to ensure the participants behaviour on the DV is shown as the naturally occurring situation that the researcher wishes to study may occur only rarely.
- This is a weakness as it reduces the available opportunities for researchers to replicate the
research to test for reliability.

Low control of extraneous variables:
- As it is a natural environment, it is not possible for the experimenter to predict everything that may
occur and put controls in place. As such, it is a weakness as means there may be uncontrolled extraneous variables that are impacting on the IV and affecting the DV.
- This reduces confidence when establishing cause and effect, reducing internal validity
- if using independent groups, the PPs may nit be randomly allocated- may be less sure whether IV affected DV- e.g. in Rutters ERA study, IV was whether adopted early or late, but this was caused by other factors like social scores which then affected DV

Question 24

Limitations of natural experiments

Answer 24

Low chances of desired behaviour being displayed:
As the researcher has no control over the situation, they are unable to ensure the participants behaviour on the DV is shown as the naturally occurring situation that the researcher wishes to study may occur only rarely.
- This is a weakness as it reduces the available opportunities for researchers to replicate the
research to test for reliability.

Low control of extraneous variables:
- As it is a natural environment, it is not possible for the experimenter to predict everything that may
occur and put controls in place. As such, it is a weakness as means there may be uncontrolled extraneous variables that are impacting on the IV and affecting the DV.
- This reduces confidence when establishing cause and effect, reducing internal validity
- if using independent groups, the PPs may nit be randomly allocated- may be less sure whether IV affected DV- e.g. in Rutters ERA study, IV was whether adopted early or late, but this was caused by other factors like social scores which then affected DV

Question 25

Describe Quasi Experiments

Answer 25

• those which use a pre-existing IV usually an individual character trait, this does not vary – it exists.
• Therefore participants are not
  randomly allocated to conditions.
  -For example, age, gender, having a phobia.
  ▪ Quasi experiments can be carried out in either controlled or more natural conditions. For example, if the IV is whether the participants smoke or socioeconomic status; then this has not been randomly allocated so is not a true experiment and is a quasi-experiment
• DV may be natural (e.g. exam results), or devised by the experimenter and measured in the field or a lab

Question 26

Strengths and limitations of Quasi-experiments

Answer 26

Controll:
- often carried out under controlled conditions and therefore share some strengths of a lab experiment e.g. replication

Counfounding variables:
- like natural experiments- can’t randomly allocate PPs to conditions- may be confounding variables
- IV not deliberately changed by the researcher- can’t claim the IV has caused any observed change

Question 27

Name 3 experimental designs

Answer 27

repeated measures
independent groups
matched pairs

Question 28

Describe repeated meausres

Answer 28

All participants take part in all levels of the IV and the results of the DV in both conditions are compared.

Question 29

Strengths of repeated measures

Answer 29

• participant variables controlled- higher validity
• fewer participants needed- less time needed to recruit them

Question 30

Strengths of repeated measures

Answer 30

• participant variables controlled- higher validity
• fewer participants needed- less time needed to recruit them

Question 31

weaknesses of repeated measures

Answer 31

Order effects:
- repeating tasks could create boredom or fatigue- performance may deteriorate but not due to change in IV
- or may improve due to effects of practice especially in skill based tasks
- order acts as confounding variable
To improve, could used counterbalancing

Demand characteristics:
- more likely that PPs may work out aim of study when they experience all conditions

Question 32

Describe independent groups

Answer 32

Participants are split so that different participants take part in different levels of the IV. The results of the DV from each group are compared.

Question 33

Strengths of independent groups

Answer 33

• no order effects
• less likely to guess aims- less risk of demand characteristics

Question 34

Weaknesses of independent groups

Answer 34

Participant variables:
- if there is difference between groups in DV, this may be due to PP variables not effect of IV
- these differences may act as confounding variables- reduces the validity of findings
To reduce effects, could use random allocation to each condition to distribute participant variables evenly

Question 35

Describe matched pairs

Answer 35

Different participants are
used in each level of the IV
BUT they are matched as
much as possible so they are
similar on key characteristics (e.g. IQ for memory test) that are likely to influence the DV (attempt to reduce PP variables) and only these characteristics.

Question 36

Strengths of matched pairs

Answer 36

• order effects minimised
• less risk of demand characteristics

Question 37

Weaknesses of matched pairs

Answer 37

Hard to match pairs:
- even though there is some attempt to reduce PP variables, PPs can never be matched exactly
- even when identical twins are used, there still may be different important characteristics which could affect the DV

Practicality:
- still need large number of PPs
- matching may also be time consuming and expensive- especially if pre-test is required- less economical than other designs

Question 38

Name 6 types (3 categories) of observational design

Answer 38

• Naturalistic/ controlled observation
• overt/ covert observation
• participant/ non-participant observation

Question 39

Describe naturalistic observations

Answer 39

involves the researcher
observing naturally occurring behaviour; the researcher does not get involved at all. They are often carried out in a natural setting such as observing children playing at nursery.

Question 40

Evaluate naturalistic observation

Answer 40

Strength:
high external validity. As they are carried out in natural settings, the findings should be applicable to other similar settings. This increases the ecological validity of the findings and means they can be generalised to every day life

Weakness:
- As naturalistic observations are not controlled by researchers, it means extraneous variables are not able to be controlled. This is an issue as these extraneous variables may impact the DV, affecting any conclusions drawn from the study. may also be hard to replicate.

Question 41

Describe controlled observation

Answer 41

where the researcher attempts to control certain variables- can manipulate variables to observe effects and control confounding/extraneous variables. This reduces how natural the environment and behaviour
shown is. Participants will know they are being studied and they are usually carried out in a laboratory setting.

Question 42

Evaluate controlled ovservation

Answer 42

Strength:
high levels of control. For example, the variables are controlled and the
environment may also be controlled by the researcher. This allows the research to be replicated to check for reliability.

Weakness:
Due to the high levels of control, it is likely that the situation is not reflective of other everyday settings. This means the findings lack external validity and may only be applicable to the research situation, lacking generalisability

Question 43

Describe Overt observations

Answer 43

when the participants are aware they are being observed and they are usually aware of the nature and purpose of the research. Given informed consent beforehand.

Question 44

Evaluate overt observations

Answer 44

Strength:
As participants are aware they are being observed in an overt observation, this makes the research more ethically sound. It allows participants to give informed consent to take part in the research. Ethically sound research is easier to replicate to test for reliability.

Weakness:
as participants are aware they are being observed they may demonstrate demand characteristics. They may change their behaviour to please the experimenter; this will reduce the validity of the results

Question 45

Describe covert observation

Answer 45

when the participants do not know that they are being observed, this may involve the observer being hidden or behind a two way mirror

Question 46

Evaluate covert observation

Answer 46

Strength:
participants are more likely to
demonstrate natural behaviour. This is because they are not aware they are being observed and so are unlikely to show demand characteristics. This increases the validity of the behaviour measured.

Weakness:
as participants are not aware
they are being observed, it raises ethical issues. Researchers should gain informed consent from participants which is not possible in a covert observation. Although, it is possible to observe participants in a situation they would expect members of the public to see them (e.g. could look at behaviour in shop as usually public but not at amount of money spent as private). Ethical issues make it more
difficult for research to be replicated to check for
reliability.

Question 47

Describe participant obsrvation

Answer 47

when the observer actually joins the group of people being studied.

Question 48

evaluate participant observation

Answer 48

Strength:
As the researcher becomes part of a group in a participant observation, it means that they can
understand the behaviour shown in the correct context. This increases the validity of the interpretation of the results.
- researcher can experience the situation as the PPs do- insight into lives of those being studied- increases internal validity

Weakness:
participant observations means the
researcher spends a lot of time with the group. The researcher may develop a rapport with the participants, reducing objectivity when analysing the data.

Question 49

Describe non-participant observation

Answer 49

when the observer remains external to those being observed and records the data more objectively. It may be impossible or impractical to join the group.

Question 50

Evaluate non-participant observation

Answer 50

Strengths:
As the researcher is not involved in a non-participant observation, it allows the researcher to remain more objective when interpreting the data. It also means investigator effects are unlikely to affect the results

Weakness:
non-participant observation means that the researcher does not necessarily understand the context
of the behaviour and that the data is likely to be less detailed. This may mean valuable data is missed.

Question 51

Evaluation of all observations

Answer 51

Strengths:
- capture what peope actually do- may be unexpected behavior- give good insight into natural behaviour

Weaknesses:
- observer bias- observers interpretations of a situation may be influenced by their expectations- could be reduced by using more than 1 observer
- cant demonstrate casual relationships- but they may aid in detecting cause and effect relationships and in experiments

Question 52

Name 2 cateogries of observation

Answer 52

• structured
• unstructured

Question 53

Describe 2 cateogories of observation

Answer 53

Structured- simplified target behavirs being observed- likely to produce quantitative data

Unstructured- everything is recorded/written down by researcher- tends to produce qualitive data- may be harder to analyse but gets lots of detail

Question 54

What must happen to target behaviour to carry out a structure observation

Answer 54

• target behaviour must be broken down into behavioural categories
• This refers to the way that the researchers operationalise the behaviour being measured, so that all observers know exactly what constitutes the behaviour being observed. For example if you were
  observing aggressive behaviour, the researcher would need to decide what behaviours constituted aggression, such as kicking, pushing, swearing
• These behavioural categories should be objective, cover all possible elements of behaviour and be mutually exclusive; meaning that each behaviour can only fit into one category- observerable, measurable and self-evident
• can make data collection more structured and objective

Question 55

What may happen if It is not possible or practical to record the entire behaviour that is shown during an observation, name 2

Answer 55

a systematic method of sampling observations is needed- event sampling, time sampling

Question 56

Describe event smapling

Answer 56

refers to the researcher watching the entire event and recording a
behaviour every time it happens in he target inducidual/group. For example, ticking a box every time that a child kicks or punches another child during school break time.

Question 57

Evaluate event sampling

Answer 57

• useful if the target behaviour/event happens quite infrequently and so is more likely to be missed using time sampling
• however if specified event is too complex, the observer may overlook important details if using event sampling
• also hard if observing large groups

Question 58

Describe time sampling

Answer 58

• involves recording behaviour within pre-established time frame e.g. every 30 seconds
• refers to recording behaviour at a set time interval during the observation.
  For example, you may record the behaviour that is shown at one minute intervals.

Question 59

evaluate time sampling

Answer 59

• effective in reducing number of observations that need to be made- (?) effective when observing larger groups (?)
• however, the instances when behaviour is sampled may be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole
• behaviour can be missed in interim periods

Question 60

Describe self report techniques, name 2

Answer 60

enable those participating in a study to provide information
knowingly about specific things relating to themselves (e.g. what they think, believe or do), as opposed to the researcher observing these things directly

Questionaires, interviews

Question 61

Define questionaires

Answer 61

a printed series of
questions used to gather
opinions/attitudes/own behaviours about specific areas of interest, such as views on day care.
May be used to asses the dependent variable.

Question 62

Describe questionaire distribution/sampling

Answer 62

can be distributed by post, telephone, via the internet, or left for participants to collect from some central point and complete in their own time.
It is important to get a large and representative sample when using
questionnaires, to ensure that you can make generalisations from the
findings.
The researcher does not need to be present when the questionnaire is administered, although the researcher’s presence may be
helpful to answer any queries that the respondent has.

Question 63

What are 2 types of questions featured in a questionnaire

Answer 63

Open and closed

Question 64

Describe closed questions

Answer 64

• produce quantitative data.
• They are those where the researcher determines the range of possible answers, respondents often reply by ticking boxes or
  circling appropriate answers.
• These questions are best used when straightforward factual information is required.
• may collect qualitative data that can be turned into quantitative data e.g. by counting number of yes/no responses
• responses easy to analyse bt may lack depth/detail

Question 65

Describe open questions

Answer 65

• produce qualitative
  data, which can produce answers of a wide range and that are detailed but usually difficult to analyse.
• They are those in which the researcher does not restrict the range of available answers.
• for example, a researcher
  might start an interview by asking ‘what are your views on children being put in day care full time?’

Question 66

Describe 3 examples of question designs (closed Q’s)

Answer 66

Likert scales:
- scale in which respondant indicates their agreement (or otherwise) using scale of usually 5 points
- e.g. ranges from strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree

Rating scale:
- gets respondant to identify value that represents strength of feeling about a particular topic, for example

Fixed-choice option:
- includes list of possible options and respondents are required to indicate those that apply to them, for example

Question 67

List things to consider when writing questions for a questionaire

Answer 67

• Do you want to use open or closed questions or both?
• Is there a balance between closed and open questions?
• Consider the number of questions and the question order.
• Use clear language for questions and instructions- avoid overuse of jargon (technical language if PP isn’t in that specialist field)
• Avoid leading or bias questions.
• Avoid using emotive language when asking questions.
• Ask questions that are clear and
  unambiguous.
• Avoid making inappropriate or insensitive assumptions.
• Carry out a pilot study (see notes on this).
• avoid double-barreled questions (2 Qs in one)
• avoid double negatives- use simple wording
• Have you adhered to ethical guidelines?

Question 68

Strengths of questionaires

Answer 68

Simple and cost effective:
- can be mailed out to many people- can gather large amounts of data
- Once developed and piloted, questionnaires can be administered by a person with a minimum of training- researcher doesn’t always need to be present- time effective
- losed questions are used and quantitative data is obtained (e.g. how many hours does your child
spend in day care?), these are usually easy to analyse, so it is often easy to compare answers from different individuals or groups of respondents- good statistical analysis- graphs and charts can be made for comparison
- This is a benefit as it allows you to gather a large sample of participants, which makes your study more representative of the target population, increasing population validity.

Less influence of interpersonal variables:
- Researchers do not usually sit with a respondent when they complete a questionnaire, so there is less opportunity for the researcher to influence the
information provided.
- For example a mum answering questions about her own sensitivity to her child, may answer more honestly if left alone to do the
questionnaire.
- This therefore reduces the likelihood of the participant giving socially desirable answers or
showing demand characteristics.
- Therefore, if participants are answering honestly, then
this gives you an accurate and more valid representation of behaviour increasing the internal validity of your results.

Question 69

Weaknesses of questionaires:

Answer 69

Problems with question wording:
- If the wording of questions is ambiguous, then respondents may interpret the question in different ways and their answer may reflect this.
- Leading questionsmay also influence the responses given. For example, it is clear what answer is being encouraged by the question:
‘What is it about day care that you find most beneficial?’
- Although care is taken to try and reduce these problems with questionnaires, as the researcher isn’t always present when they are completed we cannot be sure they
fully understood the questions.
- This is a problem as meaningful analysis of the respondents would therefore be difficult and we may not have internally valid results.

Response rate/ number:
- The proportion of people who are sent the questionnaire who choose to respond can be quite low.
- For example, mums trying to juggle child care and work may be too busy and forget to return it.
- Often around 30% or fewer of those who were sent the questionnaire actually complete it and return it to the researcher.
- The people who return the questionnaire may have characteristics that are different to those who do not (e.g. more
motivated) therefore acting as a confounding variable.
- This means that the sample is not representative of the wider population from which it was drawn and the results cannot be generalised beyond those who actually participated in the research.

Honesty:
- social desirability bias may occur in questions- form of demand characteristic to appear socially desireable/ in a positive light

Response bias:
- may always tick yes or agree if respondents complete questionnaire too fast or don’t really read the questions
- acquiescence bias- tendency to agree with items on questionnaire regardless of the question

Question 70

Define an interview

Answer 70

A ‘live’ encounter (face to face/phone) when the interviewer asks a set of questions to asses an interviewees thoughts an/or experiences- questions may be pre-set or develop as it goes along- particularly useful for gaining detailed information

Question 71

Name 3 types of interview

Answer 71

srtuctured, unsrtuctured, semi-srtuctured

Question 72

Describe structured interviews, evaluate

Answer 72

In this type of interview, interviewees are asked the same set of standardised questions in the same order. This is similar to a
questionnaire, except that the questions are open-ended. This format is useful for teams of interviewers who need to behave consistently towards interviewees so that comparisons can be made between them. If the researcher knows they need to report the results of the interviews in quantitative form then they may prefer a structured format.

• easy to replicate
• reduces differences between interviews- interpersonal variables
• hard for interviewers to deviate from topic or explain questions- limit richness of data collected, limited unexpected information

Question 73

Describe unstructured interviews, evaluate

Answer 73

These are more informal. Here, the purposeful conversation about the topic of interest is allowed to unfold
in its own way. The interviewee is largely in control of which issues are discussed and, although interviewers may prompt, they should not judge or offer opinions

• more flexible- can ask follow up questions- more insight into worldview of interviewee- may learn unexpected information
• more risk of interviewer bias
• harder to analyse- time consuming to sift through data from transcript etc

Question 74

Describe semi-stuctured interviews

Answer 74

Here the interviewer may also use some of the same questions for all interviewees, but there is flexibility in the order, whether they are asked at all and, sometimes, in how questions are phrased. This allows the interview to flow more naturally
and enables the interviewer to judge what is appropriate to ask and even to add new questions.
Less structure is good, as it allows the interviewee to give a more personal response and it allows
the interviewer to ask follow-up questions to clarify an interviewee’s response or pursue new lines of enquiry. However there are still constraints over what is covered and how well the responses can be compared with others, as well as generalisation to others.

Question 75

Interview planning

Answer 75

1) The preliminaries to the interview – have you clearly described the research question? Have
you stated the aim of the interview?

2) The questions – Have you generated an appropriate set of questions? Have you planned the
order in which the questions will be presented? Have you planned the interview to obtain the required balance between structured and unstructured interviewing?

3) The interview procedure – Have you identified and approached potential respondents? Have
you decided how the information is to be recorded in the interview? Have you considered the
ethical issues raised by the proposed research? Have you considered your non-verbal
communication and listening skills?

• standardised quetsions- interviewer bias
• group interview may be more appropriate in clinical settings
• quiet room, away from others- more likely to open up
• open with neutral questions- relax them, establish rapport
• remind of confidentiality reguarly- especially in socially sensitive topics
• consider notes vs transcript vs audio recording vs CCTV/ camera recording

Question 76

Strengths of interviews

Answer 76

Chances of accurate data:
- As the interview will take quite a bit of time, it gives the interviewer the opportunity to build up a rapport with the interviewee
- The interviewee may therefore
feel more comfortable giving honest answers than they would on a questionnaire not knowing who will look at it.
- Furthermore the interviewee can ask for clarification if they do not understand a question,
which may not be possible when using a questionnaire
- Also, the person conducting the
interview will have received training to conduct the interview, which reduces the likelihood of leading questions being asked.
- This is strength as it increases the internal validity of the answers given, meaning that you can be more confident when generalising your findings.

Detail of data:
- As the respondent and interviewer are engaging in conversation, it allows the interviewer to ask more open ended questions that the respondent is likely to give more detailed answers to
- This may be less likely in a questionnaire as it is time consuming for the participant to write out long open ended
responses, unlike verbally giving them in an interview
- The nature of an interview also means the interviewee can clarify the meaning and significance of the information being provided,
especially if a semi or unstructured interview is used.
- This is strength as it allows us to develop our understanding on a topic area via qualitative data,
that wouldn’t be possible via other research methods.

Question 77

Weaknesses of interviews

Answer 77

Effect of interpersonal variables:
- can affect the interaction between the interviewer and respondent.
- A range of factors, including gender, ethnicity, personality, class, age and even attractiveness of both the interviewer and interviewee can affect the interaction between the two.
- As much as a trained interviewer will try to minimise this, they cannot
change how the respondent reacts to these factors.
- This is a limitation as it will affect the amount and quality of information provided in the course of the interview, thus reducing internal validity

Hard to analyse:
- This is because the use of open questions gather qualitative data.
- Unlike quantitative data, you cannot use statistical tests to analyse pure qualitative data, therefore the researcher has to write a transcript for each interview and decide on what information is
relevant to their hypothesis.
- This can lead to subjectivity playing a part, as different researchers may interpret the findings differently.
- The issue with this is that the interpretation of the results may be inaccurate and can be influenced by the researcher’s own views, reducing the validity of the conclusion.

• interviewees may lie due to social desirability bias

Question 78

What does a correlational study look at

Answer 78

the relationship between two things (variables). In a correlation, these variables are called co-variables. Can be method or analysis

Question 79

What do correlational techniques calculate, describe

Answer 79

A correlation coefficient
Statistic- value between +1 (perfect positive correlation) and -1 (perfect negative correlation)

Question 80

Describe different types of correlation

Answer 80

Positive:
- as one variable increases, so does the other
- anything above 0 on coefficient
- R=+0.2 is a weak positive correlation
- R= +0.9 is a strong positive correlation

Negative:
- as one variable increases, the other decreases
- anything below 0 on coefficient
- R= -0.2 would be weak negative
- R + -0.9 would be strong negative

Zero:
- no relationships between the 2 variables
- anything measured close to 0
- R= -0.02 to +0.06

Question 81

Describe the difference between correlations and experiments

Answer 81

Experients:
- The experimenter deliberately manipulates the IV.
- The impact each condition/level of the IV has on the DV is measured.
- The experimenter is able to establish cause and effect due to the manipulation of the IV and high levels of control.

Correlation:
- No deliberate change is made to any variable
- The impact of one variable on another is not being measured (there is no ‘comparison’
variable), just the relationship between co-variables.
- The experimenter cannot establish cause and effect, just a relationship between co-variables.
There may be a third unmeasured variable that also influences the relationship.

Question 82

Strengths of correlations

Answer 82

Data produced:
- correlational analysis
can indicate the direction i.e. positive or negative, of the relationship between two variables and the strength of this relationship, expressed in the size of the correlation coefficient.
- This is a strength as the technique provides a precise quantitative
(numerical) measure of the strength of the relationship between specific variables.
- This is useful for the researcher to know whether to then carry out an experiment into the topic.
- often used as a starting point to asses possible patterns between variables before committing to experimental study

Can statistically analyse specific situations:
- allow researchers to statistically analyse situations that could not be manipulated experimentally for ethical or practical reasons.
- For example, the hours spent in day care and amount of aggressive acts shown.
- It would not be ethical to set up situations where children can be aggressive to one another or to take children away from their parents to put into daycare.
- This is a strength as they allow researchers to unravel complex relationships and are a powerful exploratory tool.
- also practical/quick- no need to control environment or manipulate variables, secondary data (e.g. government statistics) can be used- less time consuming

Question 83

Weaknesses of correlations

Answer 83

Don’t establish cause and effect:
- only establish a relationship between two variables.
- For example, if there is a positive
correlation between hours spent in day care and aggressive behaviour it does not mean day care causes aggression. It may be that children who are aggressive are put
into day care for longer.
- Or there may be a
third variable (INTERVENING VARIABLE) such as divorce, which is the reason for both the aggression and the reason why the child is spending longer in
day care.
- Therefore we have to be careful when drawing conclusions from correlations

Can’t measure non-linear relationships:
- For example when looking at the
relationship between time of day and attention levels at day care, there would initially be a positive correlation between the two variables but as lunchtime approaches this changes into a negative correlation.
- When such data is analysed
the positive and negative relationships tend to cancel each other out, with the result that no meaningful relationship is
indicated by the calculated correlation coefficient.
- It is important therefore to
plot non-linear relationships visually in order to understand what is happening.
- Otherwise, it becomes a weakness as there may be a relationship that is missed,
meaning further research and experiments are not used to measure the topic further

Question 84

What is a pilot study

Answer 84

• a small scale study, carried out with a restricted number of participants who will not take part in the study itself, before the process of collecting data begins.
• The aim is to make sure that the materials the researcher is planning to use are suitable and to identify any potential problems with the procedure.

Question 85

Describes issues to be identified using a pilot study for 3 different methods

Answer 85

Experiments:
- are standardised instructions clear?
- are materials suitable?
- are timings for the task correct?
- are there any extraneous variables?

Observations:
- are the behavioural checklists correct?
- dies the sampling work (time/event)?
- if covert, are CCTV cameras in the right place?

Interviews:
- are the questions clear?
- does the recording method work (e.g. note taking)- physically/ for research
- timings

Question 86

Benefits of pilot studies

Answer 86

• validity- internal- helps to remove extraneous variables
• reliability consistency- make sure researchers agree
• something can be reliable and not valid

Question 87

Define a target population, and what happens if it is too large to be studied

Answer 87

• a group of people who share a given set of characteristics about which a researcher wishes to draw conclusions. (e.g. all students registered for A level psychology examinations in a given year).
• A target population is too large (consider the hundreds of thousands of students within the UK who are studying this subject) to study, so a subset
  of the population – a sample – is investigated

Question 88

What should a researcher aim to do when selecting a sample

Answer 88

• select a sample that is representative of the target population allows you to generalise findings to the target population
• if it isn’t representative, we have a bias ample- can only apply findings to PPs used in the research
• in general, the larger the sample the more likely it is to be representative- less likely to be bias- BUT, could still have large but un-representative sample (lots of students but all from all-girls grammar school etc)
• should be balance between accurately representing target population and practical considerations (saving time, money etc)
• in practice, some kind of sampling error is likely to result- the researchers task is to minimise this error

Question 89

Name sampling techniques

Answer 89

• opportunity sample
• random smaple
• systematic sample
• stratified sample
• volunteer sample

Question 90

Opportunity sample- describe, give example, strengths, bias, generalisability

Answer 90

• PPs selected using those who are most easily available- e.g. friend, someone you approach on street, students in a common room- anyone willing and available
• convinient- less costly and time consuming- easiest method

Bias:
- researcher bias- may choose people who think will be useful/fit hypothesis, avoid those who they don’t like the look of etc
- unlikely to be representative- from one area at a certain time- subgroups may be missed

Generalisability:
- lacks- one space- very specific area e.g. one street, one time, possibility of biased selection

Question 91

Random sample- describe, give example, strengths, bias, generalisability

Answer 91

• all members of target population have equal chance of being selected- researcher has to have access to details of all memers- PPs selected by either adding all data to computer programme to randomly select the sample OR each PP being allocated a number which is put in a hat (pieces of paper equal size) and selected with an unbiased draw- those selected from random make up the sample
• potentially unbiased- confounding/extraneous variables should be equally divided between the different groups- enhancing internal validity
• however chance of not being fully representative/representing all subgorups- less of a risk than others, but still possible
• difficult, time-consuming
• some may refuse- may end up with sample more like volunteer
• can end upwith unrepresentative sample because of all these factors

Question 92

Systematic sample- describe, give example, strengths, bias, generalisability

Answer 92

• involves having access to target population, putting them into an order (sampling frame) (e.g. alphabetical/every nth house on a street etc)- researcher then selects every nth PP from list of those available, may begin from randomly determined start to reduce bias , works through till sample is complete
• objective- once system has been selected, researcher has no influence
• time consuming
• could be unlucky and miss subgroups etc
• some could refuse- may end up with volunteer-type sample
• should be representative and thus generalisable in theory, but could miss subgroups

Question 93

Stratified sample- describe, give example, strengths, bias, generalisability

Answer 93

• complex form of sampling in which the composition of the sample reflects the proportion of people in certain subgroups (strata) within the target/wider population. Researcher identifies the strata that make up teh population, then the proportions needed for the sample to be representative are worked out, and the PPs making up each stratum are selected using random sampling (e.g. 45% girls, 21% BTEC students, 27% doing maths)
• produces representative sample as it is designed to accurately reflect the composition of the population- means generalisation of the findings becomes possible- most generalisable
• however, strata can’t reflect all the ways people are different- complete representation of the sample not possible
• time consuming

Question 94

Volunteer sample- describe, give example, strengths, bias, generalisability

Answer 94

• self selected sample- researcher will place advert asking for volunteers for PPs for their reserach- media, noticebards etc - could also just raise hands when researcher asks- IN EXAM, SAY WHERE- BE SPECIFIC
• easy- minimal input- less time consuming- researcher ends up with people who are more engaged- more than someone stopped on street
• volunteer ias- asking for volunteers may attract certain ‘profile’ of person- someone who is curious, eager, positive etc- may be more likely to try and please the researcher (demand characteristics)
• can generalise- especially to apathetic/ not eager people in target population

Question 95

Describe aims

Answer 95

• needs to be developed before designing and carrying out the research
• An aim is a general statement which outlines what it is that is being investigated, i.e. the purpose of the investigation.
• developed from previous research/theory- e.g. based on what we already know about a topic a rsesracher will develop an aim that builds on and continues this research
• e.g. an investigation into whether the level of processing involved affects whether the information is remembered

Question 96

Describe a hypothesis

Answer 96

• formulated once an aim has been decided (after carefully reviewing the previous research into the area).
• is a specific prediction about the outcome of the investigation- will be specifically tested in the study.
• Therefore it needs to be written
  out very clearly and be fully operationalised

Question 97

What is also constructed in terms of hypothesis, describe this

Answer 97

A null hypothesis:
- made because research does not always support the experimental/alternative hypothesis and you need to have a conclusion for what your results
show
- states no difference/correlation (it does not state the opposite to the
research hypothesis as this would be a different research hypothesis). - key feature of the scientific method
- ‘no significant difference’

Question 98

Categories of hypothesis

Answer 98

• experimental/ non-experimental
• direction/non-directional

Question 99

Experimental vs non-experimental hypothesis

Answer 99

Experimental- used when an experimental method has been carried out and there is an IV and a DV.

Non-experimental- used with a non-experimental method (there is no IV or DV), for example, correlations, observations, self-report studies, is called an alternative hypothesis.

Question 100

Describe directional hypothesis

Answer 100

• predicts the direction of the
  results, for example one condition of the IV has a more/less/greater/faster/slower effect on the DV.
  -used when there is lots of previous research into the area so that the researcher can make an informed prediction of the direction of the effect of the IV on the DV.
• For example ‘there will be significantly more words correctly recalled from a list of 15 (DV) by the adults aged 18-30 compared to the children aged 9-12 (IV).’

Question 101

Describe non-directional hypothesis

Answer 101

-less specific than a directional hypothesis and does not predict the direction of the results
- states there will be a difference, but not which condition will be
faster/slower/less/ more.
- used when investigating an area with little existing research.
- For example, ‘there will be a significant difference between the number of words correctly recalled from a list of 15 (DV) by the adults aged 18-30 compared to the children aged 9-12 (IV)’

Question 102

Explain the difference between aims and hypotehses

Answer 102

• an aim is a general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate- for example to investigate whether drinking energy drinks makes people more alert
• a hypothesis is a precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated- for example, the reaction time will be quicker for those who drink an energy drink than those who drink water

Question 103

Writing template- experimental/alternative hypothesis (directional)

Answer 103

There will be a significantly more/less ________________ (insert DV here) in the
______________ (one condition of the IV) compared to the
____________________ (insert second condition of the IV).

Question 104

Writing template- experimental/alternative hypothesis (non-directional)

Answer 104

There will be a significant difference in the__________________(insert DV here)
between_____________ (insert one condition of IV) compared to
the_________________(insert second condition of IV).

Question 105

Writing template- null hypothesis

Answer 105

There will be no significant difference in the_________________(insert DV)
between___________________(insert first condition of the IV) compared
to___________________(insert second condition of the IV)

Question 106

Writing template- correlations- directional hypothesis

Answer 106

There will be a significant (positive or negative) relationship between
___________________ and _____________________

Question 107

Writing template- correlations- non-directional hypothesis

Answer 107

There will be a significant relationship between __________________ and
___________________

Question 108

Writing template- correlations- null hypothesis

Answer 108

There will be no significant relationship between ____________________ and
_____________________

Question 109

What is the psychology organisation in the UK, what is the purpose of it

Answer 109

• The British Psychological Society (BPS) is a professional body that covers the conduct of psychologists working in all areas and those conducting research.
• Researchers have a set of ethical guidelines developed by the BPS that they have to adhere to when conducting research – these are moral codes that guide behaviour

Question 110

Name the PBS ethical guidelines

Answer 110

Informed consent, deception, protection of participants, right to withdraw, debriefing, confidentiality

Question 111

Describe informed consent

Answer 111

• Whenever possible: the investigators should inform all participants of the objectives of the investigation.
• The investigators should inform the participants of all aspects of the research or intervention that might reasonably be expected to influence their willingness to participate- including the aims, procedures, rights including to withdraw, and what data will be used for
• Research with children or with other vulnerable participants requires special safeguarding procedures.
• should be able to make choice to give informed consent without feeling pressured or obliged
• can use consent form, ethics board

Question 112

Describe deception

Answer 112

• Withholding information or misleading participants is unacceptable if the participants are typically likely to show unease once debriefed.
• Intentional deception of the participants over the purpose and
  general nature of the investigation should be avoided whenever possible, although it may be impossible to study some psychological processes without withholding information about the true object of the study or without deliberately misleading the participants.
• can use consent form, ethics board, debriefing

Question 113

Describe protection of participants

Answer 113

• Participants must not be harmed by the investigation procedures: no stress or distress must be caused.
• shouldn’t be placed at any more risk than they would be in daily life
• Neither physical nor emotional harm is allowed to take place. Psychological includes being made to feel embarrassed, inadequate, or under stress or pressue
• Loss of self-esteem is psychological harm.
• can use consent form, ethics board, debriefing, PP codes

Question 114

Describe right to withdraw

Answer 114

• Participants must be made aware that they can withdraw from the investigation at any stage, refuse to take part, refuse to continue during the procedure or withdraw their results after debriefing.
• Participants should never be told that they cannot withdraw.
• can use consent form, ethics board, debriefing

Question 115

Describe debriefing

Answer 115

• Participants should leave as they entered.
• The investigator should provide the participants with any necessary information to complete their understanding of the nature of the
  research.
• The investigator should discuss with the participants their experience of the research in order to monitor any unforeseen negative effects or misconceptions.
• can use ethics board, debriefing

Question 116

Describe confidentiality

Answer 116

• Except in circumstances specified by the law, information obtained about a participant during an investigation is confidential unless otherwise agreed in advance.
• Participants in psychological research have a right to expect that information they provide will be treated confidentially, and, if published, will not be identifiable as theirs
• extends to privacy surrounding the area the study too place, including institutions ad geographical locations not being named
• can use consent form, PP codes

Question 117

How to write a consent form

Answer 117

• The topic being investigated.
• Explain to participants what they are expected to do during the study.
• Explain anything that might affect participants’ willingness to participate.
• Inform participants that their results and name will remain confidential.
• Tell participants that they can withdraw at any time, including after the procedure has finished.
• Leave space for the participant to sign
• Give the participant the
  opportunity to ask any questions
• given before study- write about it in future

Question 118

How to write a debrief form

Answer 118

• Thank participants for taking part.
• Tell participants the specific hypothesis/research question you were investigating.
• Inform participants of what you expect to find based on past research.
• Remind participants they can withdraw their results at any time and how to contact you should they wish to withdraw.
• Lower participants’ levels of anxiety if needed and if necessary guide them to sources of support.
• Give the participants the opportunity to ask you any questions
• given after- past tense

Question 119

What is an ethical issue

Answer 119

• a conflict between whta the researcher wants and the rights of the PPs
• Conflict about what is acceptable

Question 120

Name 4 ethical issues

Answer 120

• deception
• informed consent
• protection from harm
• privacy and confidentiality

Question 121

Describe the ethical issue of deception and ways to deal with it

Answer 121

• Means deliberately misleading or withholding info from PPs at any stage in the study
• It is often necessary to deceive participants of the true aims of the study, to avoid demand characteristics- can be justified is doesn’t give PP undue distress
• However, there is a difference between withholding some details of the aims (acceptable) to deliberately providing false information (less acceptable).
• The participant is unable to give fully informed consent if they have been deceived.
• They may also see psychologists as untrustworthy if they are lied to and may not participate in future research.

Ways to deal with it:
- should be given full debrief - should be made aware of true aims and any details not supplied during the study e.g. th e existence of either groups or experimental conditions
- should get a chance to ask questions about the study
- should be told what it will be used for and given the option to withdraw their data from the study- particularly important if retrospective consent is feature of the study
- PPS should be measured behaviour was typical/normal
- should provide counselling if necesarry- e.g. if PP was stressed or embarrassed

Question 122

Describe the ethical issue of informed consent and ways to deal with it

Answer 122

• Gaining fully informed consent means that participants may demonstrate demand characteristics, which is an
  issue for researchers.
• Therefore they may not want to
  always reveal the true nature of the study.
• However participants should be aware of what they are required to do, so they can make an informed decision as to whether they want to participate, this is a basic human right.
• Participants should also be made aware of any potential benefits or risks of participating (which the researcher may not be always able to anticipate).

Ways of dealing with it:
- PPs should be given consent letter/form detailing all relevant issue that may affect decision to participate- can be signed
- for children under 16, parental consent is needed
3 other types of consent:
- presumptive consent- rather than getting PPS consent, ask similar group of people is research is acceptable- if group agrees, consent of original PPs is presumed
- prior general consent- PPs give permission to take part in number of different studies- including the one that will involve deception- by consenting, PPs effectively consenting to be deceived
- retrospective consent- PPs asked for their consent during debriefing having already taken part- may not have been aware of their deception or have been subject to deception

Question 123

Describe the ethical issue of protection from harm and ways to deal with it

Answer 123

• If researcher’s want to study all elements of human behaviour, some will be of topics in which may cause some distress to participants.
• A participant should feel confident that they will not be harmed during the research process (physically or psychologically).

How to deal with it:
- should be given full debrief - should be made aware of true aims and any details not supplied during the study e.g. th e existence of either groups or experimental conditions
- should get a chance to ask questions about the study
- should be told what it will be used for and given the option to withdraw their data from the study- particularly important if retrospective consent is feature of the study
- PPS should be measured behaviour was typical/normal
- should provide counselling if necesarry- e.g. if PP was stressed or embarrassed

Question 124

Describe the ethical issue of privacy and confidentiality and ways to deal with it

Answer 124

• Although a researcher may guarantee anonymity, it may at times be obvious who has been involved in a study.
• The participants have a legal right under the Data Protection Act tonot have their data in an identifiable form

Ways of dealing with it:
- if personal details are held, should be protected
- more usual to record no personal deatils- kepet anonymity
- refer to PPs as numbers or initials
- PPs should be reminded during briefing and debriefing that data will be protected throughout the process and that it wont be shared with other researchers

Question 125

Describe cost-benefit analysis

Answer 125

• when researchers judge the costs of doing the research against the benefits, this may be looked at
  from the participants point of view but also the costs and benefits of the potential findings to the wider society.
• For example, could the research potentially improve people’s lives? We also need to consider the social group to which the participants used in the research belong and how the research may positively/negatively affect them.

Question 126

Describe ethical comittees

Answer 126

Most institutions where research is carried out have an ethics committee who have to approve any study before it begins.
They will consider all possible ethical issues and how the researcher has dealt with them.

Question 127

2 strategies of dealing with ethical issues

Answer 127

• cost-benefit analysis
• ethics committee

Question 128

What does the economy refer to

Answer 128

-The production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.
- The findings from psychological research can impact the economy. This may not be directly, but by influencing social factors this can in turn impact on the economy.

Question 129

Factors to consider when describing how psychological research impacts the economy

Answer 129

• NHS- saving/costing e.g costig due to MH drugs
• government- saving/costing
• business- increase/decrease in profits
• services- e.g. increased need for childcare
• staff absence and presenteeism (lack of effort etc at work)
• absence from work costs economy approximately in the UK £34 million a year

Question 130

Describe Measures of central tendency, what they tell you, 3 examples

Answer 130

• provides a single value which is representative of a set of numbers by implicating the most typical value.
• Identifying the central tendency in a set of data tells a researcher where the middle or centre of a set of data is located.
• mean, median and mode.

Question 131

Mean- What it is, how to calculate it, advantages/disadvantages

Answer 131

• the arithmetic average
• calculated by adding up the sum of scores and dividing by the number of scores
• It is the most sensitive and representative measure of central tendency as it takes all the scores into account.
• Can be distorted by extreme scores and then becomes unrepresentative of the data set. Also assumes interval level data.

Question 132

Median- What it is, how to calculate it, advantages/disadvantages

Answer 132

• the middle score after the data is ordered.
• When two scores are in the middle add them up and divide by 2
• Unaffected by extreme scores, so a more appropriate measure when there are extreme scores, easy to calculate once numbers are arranged
• ## Only takes into account one or two scores – the middle values- less sensitive. Generally used with ordinal level data

Question 133

Measures of dispersion vs central tendency

Answer 133

• Measures of dispersion help us to examine the variability within our data sets, and help us to understand whether scores in a given set of data are similar to, or very different from, each other.
• While measures of central tendency are used to estimate ‘normal’ values of a data set, measures of dispersion describe the spread of the data, or its variation, around a central value.

Question 134

2 types of descriptive statistics

Answer 134

• measures of central tendency
• measures of dispersion

Question 135

Mode- What it is, how to calculate it, advantages/disadvantages

Answer 135

• The most frequently occurring score
• may be 2 modes (bi-modal), or none
• Similar to the median, the mode is unaffected by extreme scores, easy to calculate, may be only available (e.g. asked what favourite icecream flavour was)
• Can be affected dramatically by the change in one score, making it unrepresentative. Used with nominal data. Not useful when several modes.

Question 136

Range- what it is, how to calculate it

Answer 136

• the difference between the
  highest and lowest score and is calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest
  score and adding 1
• By adding 1 it allows for
  any rounding up or down that has occurred in the data.
• For example if your scores ranged from 91 to 15 your range would be (91-15) + 1 = 77

Question 137

Standard Deviation- what it is, what a high/low one means

Answer 137

• The standard deviation is a measure of the variability or spread of a given set of scores from its mean. As with the mean, its calculation involves all of the scores in a given data set; this makes the standard deviation the most powerful of the measures of dispersion.
• Large SD = there was much variation around the mean, and there were greater individual differences in that group; the results are less consistent. This means it is less likely the IV is affecting all participants in the same way
• Small SD = the data was closely clustered around the mean; the results are consistent. This suggests all participants scored similarly and responded in a similar way to the IV

Question 138

Advantages/disadvantages of using the range as a measure of dispersion

Answer 138

• The range has the advantage of being quick to calculate. It also takes account of extreme values
• It does not provide any idea of the distribution of values around the centre, nor does it take individual values into account (remember that the only values used when calculating the range are the two most extreme values). Following on from this point, it means the range is seriously affected by extreme scores (outliers).

Question 139

Advantages/disadvantages of using standard deviation as a measure of dispersion

Answer 139

• It takes account of all the scores and it is a sensitive measure of dispersion (more so than the range).
• It is more difficult to calculate compared to the range (you do not
  need to know how to calculate the standard deviation). It is also less meaningful if your data is not normally distributed. Its calculations are based on the mean, so it is also distorted by extreme scores.

Question 140

Describe bar charts, how to draw them, what type of data they are used for

Answer 140

• consists of a series of vertical bars of equal width apart.
• The height of the bars indicate the frequency and bars do NOT touch. - You can use ‘clustered’ bar charts to plot more than one sample of data.
• They are used with nominal data (or ordinal/interval data that has
  been turned into nominal data e.g. the mean calculations) and when plotting measures of central tendency with ordinal data.

Question 141

Describe histograms, how to draw them, what type of data they are used for

Answer 141

• These show the distribution of scores that are measured along a continuous scale and give a visual impression of how often certain measures occur.
• Frequency is recorded on the vertical axis and the variable on the
  horizontal.
• Histograms have the vertical bars touching each other.
• Where possible it is easiest to have equal class intervals along the x axis.
• They use ordinal or interval/ratio data and make use of the RAW scores not the central tendency

Question 142

Describe scattergrams, how to draw them, what type of data they are used for

Answer 142

• These are used for plotting correlations.
• They show a clear visual image of what correlation has been found and identifies whether there is a relationship between two variables and what direction that is.
• It will show any anomalies (unusual scores).
• The variable you think is predicting the other goes along the X axis, BUT the only show an association between two variables

Question 143

What must you do when labelling the axes of a graph

Answer 143

operationalise each variable e.g. ‘mean score on aggression questionnaire’

Question 144

Describe tables

Answer 144

• do not include all of participants’ raw scores, they include descriptive statistics (measures of central tendency and dispersion) or percentages.
• Tables should have a clear heading that allows them to be understood without having to read any further.
• Each row and column in the table should also be appropriately headed.
• It is also standard practice to summarise what the table shows underneath

Question 145

What must you do when interpreting a table

Answer 145

• refer to all data
• make a comparison between each condition e.g. ‘the mean was lower/higher’.
• then need to state what this suggests.

Question 146

What do inferential statistics allow researchers to do

Answer 146

Draw conclusions about their research because statistical tests tell them the likelihood- probability- that the results occured by chance. From such tests, researchers can draw conclusions and decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis and following this, whether to accept or reject the alternative hypothesis.. If the changes in the dependent variable are due to chance, we accept the null hypothesis. If the statistical test shows the change independent variable occured due to the independent variable, then we accept their experimental hypothesis.

Question 147

Put probability do we acccept in psychology

Answer 147

less than/equal to 5% level of significance- the minimum level acceptable for regarding results and significant- 0.05- can never be 100% sure as extraneous variables can affect our results

Question 148

What value represents the probability of something happening by chance, what do these range from come up what would a 0.1 number mean

Answer 148

• P number
• 0-1 (0= no influence of chance, 1 = complete infuence of chance)
• 0.1- 10% significance level- 10% probability that’s the result occurred by chance- 90% probability that the result occured because of the independent variable

Question 149

When should you use the sign test

Answer 149

• you need to be looking for a difference not an association
• you need to have used a repeated measures design
• you need to have collected nominal data

Question 150

Describe how to calculate the sign test

Answer 150

• put the raw data into a table
• use a +/- to indicate the direction of difference for each participant
• to calculate the observed value, add up the number of times the less frequent sign occurs- S
• gets the critical value of S from a critical value table. N= numbr of scores not including no difference. Also need to know whether you have a directional or non directional hypothesis and the significance level you will be using- usually 0.05
• go to the corresponding cell on the table using this information. You will get a number. This number tells you the maximum value of S top day significant at the level of probability you have selected. This is your critical value.
• compare your critical value to your calculated statistic. The calculated value of S must be equal to or less than the critical value at the 0.05 level of significance for your results to be significant
• if your results are significant you can accept the experimental hypothesis and reject the null. If not, you accept the null hypothesis and reject your experimental hypothesis.

Question 151

Describe case studies

Answer 151

• a detailed, in depth analysis of an individual, group, institution or event
• may be unusual or typical people/events
• usually involves production of qualitative data
• researchers may construct a case history of the individual concerned- perhaps using interviews, observations, questionnaires, analysis of medial records, or a combination
• person may be subject to experimental or psychological testing to asses what they are/aren’t capable of- may produce quantitative data
• research often focused on a particular aspect of behaviour
• tend to take place over a long period of time (longitudinal)
• may involve gathering data from family/friends as well as the individual themselves
• example- Clive Wearing

Question 152

Case studies- strengths

Answer 152

Rich and interesting data:
- produce data with a high degree of realism
- can therefore provide valuable new insights into the phenomenon being studied and which might not be accessible via other forms of investigation
- e.g. important information about brain function has been deduced from the case studies of brain damaged individuals (e.g. learnt about distinction of procedural memory from Clive Wearing)

Unique:
- allows study of things that may not be able to be studied ethically in an experiment
- E.g. Koluchova’s (1972) study of the Czech twins- couldn’t have been manipulated
- these sensitive areas need to be studied to give us a true insight into human behaviour, as one case can be used to contradict a theory- e.g. KF contradicted idea that information had to be rehearsed in order to pass to the LTM

Practical application:
- can give us insight into ‘typical’ functioning
- e.g. HM- demonstrated typical memory functioning- separation of STM and LTM
- can also generate hypotheses for future studies, or may lead to the revision of an entire theory

Question 153

Case studies- limitations

Answer 153

Low reliability:
- findings unlikely to be replicated- even in similar cases
- often case studies rely on the PPs memory being accurate
- however, those who conduct case studies don’t usually intend to make such generalisations

Subjective/low validity:
- often based on lengthy in-depth interviews and observations
- a relationship is often established between the researcher and the individual being studied
- weakness as the findings will be a personal view and may be biased
- means that findings may not be a valid reflection of the behaviour being studied and questions the conclusions being drawn
- reports from family/friends may be prone to inaccuracy and memory decay

Question 154

Describe content analysis

Answer 154

• the process of changing qualitative data (e.g. interviews, literature, TV, songs, magazines) into quantitative data (numbers)
• in order to turn written data into numbers, you need to count how many times the chosen coding occurs
• statistical analysis that involves categorising and quantifying aspects of behaviour in some selected medium
• often used alongside other methods (mixed methods) and used to corroborate data gathered through other methods (checking validity in this way is known as triangulation)

Question 155

Describe coding as part of content analysis

Answer 155

• uses coding units- specific behaviours/actions/words/phrases to be counted in the material
• can be top down- decided before you do the content analysis (using a pre-existing coding scheme validated by previous research), or bottom up- decided after viewing the material and picking up recurring themes/categories
• a coding system needs to be reliable, so once developed needs to be trialled and adjusted
• at least 1 independent observer using the coding system on the same data as the researcher looking to see if they are in close agreement- high inter-rater reliability
• one the data has been collected it needs to be analysed-can be done using statistical tests

Question 156

Describe examples of coding units

Answer 156

• a particular word/phrase- e.g. ‘stress’, ‘value for money’
• a semantic (meaning) category- e.g. reference to an event, object or concept e.g. worry
• a type of utterance- e.g. adjective, verb, laughter, silence
• specific observable behaviours (e.g. hugging, hand shaking, crying)

Question 157

Describe themantic analysis as part of content analysis

Answer 157

• form of CA but the outcome is qualitative
• involves the identification of recurrent themes- implicit or explicit
• likely more descriptive than coding units
• once the researcher is satisfied that the themes they have collected cover most aspects of the data they are analysing, they may collect a new set of data to test the validity of the themes and categories
• assuming these explain the new data adequately, the researcher will write up the final report- typically using direct quotes from the data to illustrate each theme

Question 158

Content analysis- strengths

Answer 158

Allows analysis of large amounts of qualitative data:
- allows relatively quick and systematic analysis
- once you have developed clear, objective coding units, you just have to count
- computer software can sift through qualitative data such as literature, and count specific words for you
- being able to easily analyse large amounts of data gives more representative results of the particular topic being studied

Easy to test for reliability:
- easy to measure whether consistent results are found using the coding system
- reliability can be tested by getting a second person to check your coding of the material, having a second person code the data independently and compare the outcome, or having the same coder analyse the material again on a different occasion
- if the coding system is shown to be reliable, then it provides support for content analysis to be and objective and non-bias qualitative analysis

Flexible:
- may produce both quantitative and qualitative data depending on the aims of the research

External validity:
- much of the data that the analyst may want to study, such as TV adverts, films, personal ads in the newspaper/internet etc may already exist in the public domain
- often circumnavigates ethical issues- there are no issues with obtaining permission
- such communications have the benefit of being high in external validity- and may access data of a sensitive nature provided the ‘authors’ consent to its use

Question 159

Content analysis- weaknesses

Answer 159

Potential for bias:
- if the researcher choses the coding system, then they may only chose data that is specific to their hypothesis and therefore miss out other conflicting/important data
- this would reduce the internal validity of the results, as they may not accurately represent what is being measured
- people tend to be studied indirectly- communications often analysed out of context- researcher may attribute opinions/motivations to the speaker or writer that were not intended originally
- BUT- many modern analysts are clear about how their own biases and preconceptions influence the research process- often make reference to these in part of their final report

Data may not be accurately analysed:
- if you come across material that is very ambiguous or unclear, and does not fit nicely into any coding units, it will be ignored
- further, often it is the frequency of something (e.g. word/behaviour) that is counted- just because a certain word appears more often, we cannot assume that this makes it more important
- therefore, the results may not be an accurate representation of the phenomenon being measured and reduces the internal validity- not measuring what we set out to measure

Question 160

what is reliability

Answer 160

• refers to the consistency of the research- can mean whether the findings are consistent, or whether the measuring device produces consistent results every time its used
• the more reliable research is, the more confident we can be with the results
• the idea of replicability is a key feature of science

Question 161

Name ways of assessing reliability

Answer 161

• external- test-retest, intre-observer reliability
• internal- split half

Question 162

Describe the test-retest method

Answer 162

• a person is given the test used (questionnaire/interview/test) on one occasion, and the same test is repeated a number of times after a reasonable interval (e.g. in a week or a month) with the same person
• interval needs to be long enough that respondant cant remember their answers, but not so long that their attitudes, abilities or opinions have changed
• if the measure is reliable, the outcome should be the same (or similar) every time
• a correlation can then be carried out to find the link between the 2 sets of scores- a strong positive correlation and significance would suggest good reliability and increase confidence in the study and its conclusions

Question 163

Describe inter-observer reliability

Answer 163

• as all observers use the same behavioural categories in a study, it checks whether they are interpreting the categories in the same way
• may involve a pilot study t heck behavioural categories
• this can be assessed by measuring the extent to which different observers achieve similar results when observing and scoring the same events from the same participants
• observers record their own data individually and then the sets of data from each observer are correlated to establish a degree of similarity in the scores
• also done with content analysis, but called inter-rater, and in interviews inter-interviewer
• inter-observer reliability is achieved if there is a significant positive correlation between the scores of the different observers

Question 164

Describe split-half (reliability)

Answer 164

• measures the extent to which all parts of the test contribute evenly
• correlate the scores from each half of the test

Question 165

Describe how reliability is measured

Answer 165

Using correlational analysis- in test-retest and inter-observer, the 2 sets of scores are correlated- the correlation coefficient should exceed +.80 for reliability

Question 166

Improving reliability- questionares

Answer 166

• measure using test-retest
• all questions should be checked to ensure they are clear and non-ambiguous- closed Q’s may be more suitable for this
• a pilot study should be carried out beforehand to allow the researcher to identify any problems with their questions

Question 167

Improving reliability- interviews

Answer 167

• measured using test-retest
• all researchers carrying out interviews should be carefully trained
• the same interviewer should be used
• a pilot study should be carried out beforehand to allow the researcher to identify any problems with their questions
• avoiding leading or ambiguous questions
• may use structured interview- interviewers behaviour more controlled by fixed questions- more likely to be reliable

Question 168

Improving reliability- observations

Answer 168

• measured using inter-observer
• use mutiple observers and compare observer reliability
• behavioural categories should be properly operationalised, should be measurable and self evident- clear and non-ambiguous
• can use a pre-existing (already validated) coding system- can help ensure it is clear and non-ambiguous
• categories shouldn’t overlap
• all observers should be thoroughly trained on what to observe and know how to use the coding system
• ## behaviour can be filmed- so the researcher can check their data against the film

Question 169

Improving reliability- experiments

Answer 169

• researcher needs to make sure variables are operationalized
• extraneous variables need to be controlled
• any materials used need to be clearly described and an in-depth method section included in the report so the study can be replicated exactly
• standardised instructions should be used to improve control

Question 170

What is validity

Answer 170

• refers to accuracy
• the degree to which something measures what it claims to
• Whether the study investigates what it claims (internal) to and the extent to which findings cam be generalised beyond research settings (external)

Question 171

Name different types of validity

Answer 171

• internal
• external- ecological, temporal

Question 172

Describe internal validity

Answer 172

• concerns what goes on inside of a study
• whether the researcher tested what they intended to
• in an experiment, refers to whether the results are due to the manipulation of the IV and have not been affected by confounding variables (e.g. demand characteristics, investigator effects)

Question 173

Describe external validity

Answer 173

• refers to factors outside of the study- whether findings can eb generalised to other settings, cultures and eras
• includes ecological and temporal validity

Question 174

Describe ecological validity

Answer 174

• concerns generalising the findings from a study to other settings- more particularly every day life
• can be about setting (e.g. ab or natural)
• mundane realism- whether the experiment/tasks mirror the real word and resemble events in normal every day life
• psychological/experimental realism - whether the psychological processes being measured are the same as those that occur in every day life

Question 175

Describe temporal validity

Answer 175

• whether findings from a particular study, or concepts from a particular theory, hold true over time
• findings may be outdated or a reflection of a certain political society e.g. one without feminism- may not be applicable to human behaviour today

Question 176

Name 2 ways of assesing validity

Answer 176

• face validity
• concurrent validity

Question 177

Describe face validity

Answer 177

• the simplest measure
• refers to whether at face value the study appears to measure what it set out to
• might involve 1/2 experts looking at the design and the measures used in the study to see if they are appropriate to the aim of the study

Question 178

Describe concurrent validity

Answer 178

• where new measures in a study (where validity is not known) are compared to measures in another which have been previously validated
• results from established scale/test correlated against new one
• a strong correlation between the 2 suggests the new measure has strong concurrent validity
• close agreement is indicated if the correlation between the 2 sets exceeds +.80

Question 179

Improving internal validity- experiments

Answer 179

• anything that influences the DV (other than the IV) can reduce internal validity- all extraneous variables need to be tightly controlled
• can use control group to establish whether IV caused changes in DV
• standardise procedures- minimise participants reactivity and investigator effects
• single and double blind procedures- reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects
• all variables need to be operationalised
• may be the way behaviour is being measured that is inaccurate- change
• IV or DV may need changing in order to measure the behaviour more accurately

Question 180

Improving internal validity- observations

Answer 180

• use multiple observers for accuracy
• all observers should be well trained in what they are observing for, with a clear understanding of how to use the coding system
• if the coding system is new, asses for concurrent validity and amend if necessary
• the behavioural checklist may need changing and improving if it is overlapping or ambiguous

Question 181

Improving internal validity- questionaire

Answer 181

• if the questionnaire has low construct validity, the questions will need amending in order to be more of a valid representation of the behaviour being studied
• many questionnaires and psychological tests incorporate a lie scale within the questions in order to asses the consistency of a respondents response and control for the effects of social desirability bias
• validity may also be improved by ensuring respondents that their results/answers will remain anonymous

Question 182

Improving external validity- experiments

Answer 182

• the sampling technique may need changing to give a more representative sample of the target population
• replicating the study with a different sample of PPs will help to improve population validity
• increase sample size
• make both the IV and DV as true to real life as possible to improve ecological validity

Question 183

Improving external validity- observations

Answer 183

• try to observe as many people as possible, which include a representative sample of the target population
• where possible use covert observations so that PPs behaviour isn’t changed- natural and authentic
• if the behaviour may change over time with social norms, adjust he behavioural checklist accordingly

Question 184

Improving external validity- questionaire

Answer 184

• make the questionnaire as accessible to as many people as possible- for example allow it to be completed online to help improve response rate
• if the questionnaire is investigating an area that has the possibility to change with social norms, make sure the questions are updated to suit contemporary society

Question 185

Improving validity- qualitative reserach

Answer 185

• often thought as having higher ecological than more quantitative, less interpretive methods as the depth and detail associates with case studies etc is better able to reflect a PPs reality
• researcher may have to demonstrate the interpretative validity of their conclusions- the extent to which the researchers interpretation of events matches that of their participants
• can be demonstrated through things such as coherence of the researchers narrative and the inclusion of direct quotes of the PPs in report
• validity is further enhanced through triangulation- the use of a number of different sources as evidence, for example, data complied through interviews with friends/family, personal diaries, observations etc

Question 186

Describe type I errors

Answer 186

• when a null hypothesis is rejected that should no have been
• false positive- not actually a significant difference- overly optimistic
• wrongly accepted experimental hypothesis
• insufficiently stringent significance level (not harsh enough) used- e.g. p<0.1

Question 187

Describe type II errors

Answer 187

• when a null hypothesis is accepted that should no have been
• false negative- is actually a significant difference- overly pessimistic
• wrongly rejected experimental hypothesis
• overly stringent significance level (too harsh) used- e.g. p<0.01

Question 188

Describe the balance between type I and II errors

Answer 188

• the stricter the significance level, the less chance there is of making a type I error, and the more chance of making a type II error
• the more lenient the significance level, the more chance of making a type I error, and the less chance of making a type II error
• 5% significance level strikes a balance between making type I and II errors

Question 189

Name 3 levels of measurement

Answer 189

• nominal
• ordinal
• inetrval/ratio

Question 190

Describe nominal data

Answer 190

• counting frequency data
• data falls into separate categories
• each piece of data can only belong in 1 category- discrete
• count number of PPs in each category
• only tells us quantity of data

Question 191

Describe ordinal data

Answer 191

• data ranked into place order
• sometimes, rating scales are used to do this
• also nominal, but more informative- shows us how the data relate to each other
• however, don’t know difference between each place
• can categorise into nominal- e.g. counting how many scored 1 on attitude scale
• raw scores converted into ranks- actual scores not used in statistical testing

Question 192

Describe interval/ratio level data

Answer 192

• similar to ordinal, as can be ordered
• however, difference is that there are equal intervals on the points of the scale
• standardised measurements e.g. minutes, seconds, centimetres
• if unsure between ordinal and interval, write ‘at least ordinal’ as interval is also ordinal

Question 193

Describe the stages of choosing a statistical test

Answer 193

1) Difference or correlation?
2) Design type- unrelated (independent groups) or related (repeated measures or matched pairs)
3) Level of measurement- nominal, ordinal, or interval
ALWAYS RELATE TO Q STEM WHEN DESCRIBING

Question 194

Choosing a statistical test table

Answer 194

Question 195

Name the features of science

Answer 195

• objectivity (and the empirical method)
• replicability
• falsifiability
• theory construction
• hypothesis testing
• paradigms and paradigm shifts

Question 196

Describe objectivity

Answer 196

• when all sources of personal bias are minimised so as not to distort or influence the research process
• the observer needs to stop any personal prejudices, emotions, or expectations influencing their
  theory, explanations, findings
• the most objective methods are associated with the greatest levels of control, such as lab experiments
• Features that aid objectivity include standardised instructions, operationalised variables, and the double-blind technique- prevents subjectivity
• objectivity is the basis of the empirical method

Question 197

Describe the empirical method

Answer 197

• empiricism refers to experience- empirical methods emphasised the importance of data collection based on direct, sensory experience
• the approach of using a
  collection of data to base a theory or derive a conclusion- using research evidence to help to develop and find support for theories
• the experimental methods and the observational methods are examples of the empirical method in psychology
• John Locke- knowledge is determined only by experience and sensory perception- a theory cannot claim to be scientific unless it has been empirically tested and verified

Question 198

Outline theory construction

Answer 198

• One aim of science is to record facts, but an additional aim is to use these facts to construct theories to help us understand and predict the
  natural phenomena around us
• A theory is a collection of general principles that
  explain observations and facts
• A collection of research evidence is used to develop
  theories
• most important aspect of a scientific theory is that it must be testable and falsifiable
• construction refers to the process of developing an explanation for the causes of behaviour by systematically gathering evidence and then organising this into a coherent accounts- a theory

Question 199

Describe how theory construction occurs

Answer 199

• induction- theories developed as a result of carrying out research (e.g. Milgram investigated obedience and then came up with agency theory)
• deduction- theories developed by observation and then carrying out research to test them (e.g. Bowlby developed theory of maternal deprivation then tested using 44 thieves study)

Question 200

Describe hypothesis testing

Answer 200

• essential component of a theory is that it can be scientifically tested- they should suggest a number of possible hypotheses which can be tested
• a hypothesis is a prediction that the researcher expects to find during the investigation
• The research is carried out to test whether the prediction made (hypothesis) is likely
  to be true or not

Question 201

Describe how a hypothesis is decided

Answer 201

• A hypothesis is usually formulated from an existing theory- an idea that a
  psychologist has about a particular phenomenon
• to know whether this idea is correct or not we need to test it (but we can never prove it to be correct)- this is why research is carried out
• By testing the hypothesis, a researcher gathers evidence which then helps to develop and inform the theory
• Theories are beneficial as they allow psychologists to make predictions about behaviour

Question 202

The research cycle

Answer 202

Question 203

Describe falsifiability

Answer 203

• Popper- argued that falsifiability is the key criterion of a scientific theory
• genuine scientific theories should hold themselves up for hypothesis testing and the possibility of being proven false
• theory of falsification- even when a scientific principle had been successfully and repeatedly tested, it was not necessarily true- instead had simply not been proven false
• pseudoscience’s involve theories which can’t be falsified
• the strongest theories are ones that survive most attempts to falsify them
• This is why an alternative hypothesis must always be accompanied by a null hypothesis- allows for falsification
• no matter how many pieces of research support (validate) a theory, this does not make it undeniably true
• However, one example of falsification (a study which refutes the theory) is enough to show the theory is untrue
• Therefore, all research hypotheses and theories should have the potential to be found false

Question 204

Describe replicability

Answer 204

• important element of Poppers hypothetico-deductive method
• if a scientific theory is to be trusted, the findings from it must be shown to be repeatable across a number of different contexts and circumstances
• reliability- another researcher should be able to repeat the experiment exactly and compare results
• replicability tends to be greatest when experiments are conducted in a carefully controlled way- all details of the original study must be
  published, including the procedure, data and results
• ensures results weren’t a fluke
• validity- by repeating a study over a number of different contexts and circumstances we can see the extent to which the findings can be generalised
• gives confidence to the conclusions drawn in research and adds to scientific knowledge

Question 205

What is a paradigm

Answer 205

• a general theory or law that is accepted by the majority of
  scientists in that particular field of study
• not fixed- change as new evidence questions the adequacy of the existing
  paradigm
• Eventually enough evidence is gathered that the existing
  paradigm is replaced by another paradigm

Question 206

Describe paradigms in relation to psychology

Answer 206

• Kuhn- suggests paradigms are what distinguishes scientific disciplines from non-scientific disciplines- a shared set of assumptions and methods
• suggested that social sciences including psychology lack a universally accepted paradigm- probably best seen as pre science as distinct from natural sciences such as biology or physics
• natural sciences are characterised by having a number of principles at their core such as the theory of evolution in biology, or the standard model of the universe in physics
• psychology, however, is marked by too much internal disagreement and has too many conflicting approaches to qualify as a science- therefore a pre-science

Question 207

Describe Kuhn’s view on the development of a science

Answer 207

1) Pre-science:
- variety of theories that attempt to explain a phenomenon
- no widely accepted theory or paradigm

2) Normal science:
- a generally accepted paradigm has emerged and dominated the science
- this influences he types of questions asked
- However, over a period of time evidence is found that appears to contradict the
dominant paradigm

Revolutionary science:
- The accumulation of evidence against the existing
paradigm now questions it and alternative theories are
put forward
- Eventually a new paradigm is accepted
- This is called a paradigm shift
- This shift is gradual and does create division between scientists
- Many scientists will resist change and continue to support the old paradigm for as long as possible

Question 208

Discussion of psychology as a science (paradigms)

Answer 208

• there are a number of theoretical perspectives in psychology that have suggested quite different ideas and ways of investigating the human subject- Kuhn’s argument that psychology has a lack of accepted paradigm- still a pre-science
• however, the vast majority of researchers would accept a definition of psychology as the study of minds and behaviour- suggests broad agreement
• similarly, it could be argued that psychology has already progressed through several paradigm shifts from Wundt’s early structuralism to the dominant cognitive neuroscience model of today
• Feyerabend- suggested that Kuhn’s conception of proper science as orderly and paradigmatic is flawed- most sciences are in fact characterised by internal conflict, disputes and a refusal to accept new ideas in the face of evidence

Question 209

Name the sections of a psychological report

Answer 209

• abstract
• introduction
• method
• results
• discussion
• references

Question 210

Describe the Abstract

Answer 210

• A summary of the study covering all the main sections
• normally about
  150-200 words
• important summaries so that the reader can see the aim, method and results of the study at a glance
• when researching a particular topic, psychologists will often read lots of abstracts in order to identify those studies that are worthy of further examination

Question 211

Describe the introduction

Answer 211

• A literature review of the general area of research- describes previous research (theories, concepts, and studies) in the area and limitations of these, leading to a rationale for why the researchers intend to conduct their particular study
• written using a ‘funnel’ technique- where the researcher starts off with a broad theoretical perspective and then narrows down the research discussed to the precise study area, leading into the aims and hypothesis

Question 212

Describe the method section of a psychological report

Answer 212

• A detailed description of what the researcher did, providing enough information for others to replicate the study.
• includes a number of
  different subsections:
• Design – This includes details on methodology, variables (e.g. independent groups, naturalistic observation) and justification for the choices made
• Participants/sampling - details about the sample, including sampling method, target population, size and demographical/biographical characteristics such as age and gender.
• Materials - details of any materials/apparatus used and the procedure
• Procedure – A step by step description of everything that happened in the study to allow for replication- verbatim description of everything said to PPs including briefing, standardised instructions and debrief
• Ethics - any ethical considerations will also be mentioned here and how they were dealt with

Question 213

Describe the results section of a psychological report

Answer 213

• contains what the researcher found, often called statistical data
• includes descriptive statistics (tables, averages and graphs) and
  inferential statistics (the use of statistical tests to determine how significant the
  results are)
• raw data contained in the appendix rather than main section
• If qualitative data was gathered, this would include an analysis of themes and/or categories and quotes from the data to illustrate these

Question 214

Describe the discussion section of a psychological report

Answer 214

• summarises findings in verbal, rather than statistical form- discussed in the context of the evidence presented in the introduction and other research that may be considered relevant
• the researchers offer explanations of the behaviours they observed in
  relation to the research presented in the introduction
• limitations, implications, contributions to existing knowledge-base, and real-world applications will be explored
• Finally, suggestions for future research will be made

Question 215

Describe referencing in psychological reports

Answer 215

• The full details of any journal articles or books they have cited are presented here using a standard format (usually Harvard or APA) in alphabetical
  order
• dates in brackets, names as {surname, initial of first name e.g. Smith, J}

Journal references:
Author–> date –> Article title –> journal name (italics) –> volume (issue) –> page numbers

Book references:
Author–> date –> title of book (italics)–> place of publication –> publisher

Web references:
Source–> date –> title –> weblink –> date accessed

Question 216

What is a peer review

Answer 216

• the process by which psychological research papers are subjected to independent scrutiny by other psychologists working in a similar field, before publication
• These experts will consider the research in terms of its validity, significance and originality
• They will also check the methodology, statistics and conclusions made

Question 217

Describe the process of a peer review

Answer 217

• The researcher submits their paper to the editor of a journal, who sends it on the experts in that field
• They carefully read the report, making an assessment of the appropriateness of the methods and designs used
• It is then sent back to the editor with comments which may suggest:
  1) It is suitable for publication
  2) It can be accepted after some revisions
  3) It is rejected, but offer revisions and a resubmission
  4) Rejection for publication
  The editor makes the final decision whether to accept or reject the research report based on the reviewers’ comments

Question 218

Types of peer review

Answer 218

• Open- both the researcher and reviewer are known to each other
• Single blind- the reviewer knows who the researcher is, but the researcher does not know who has reviewed their work
• Double-blind- neither the researcher nor reviewer knows who the other it

Question 219

purpose/importance of peer review:

Answer 219

High quality:
- this helps to make sure that the research in the scientific (and public) domain is the highest quality scientific research (in terms of valid
methodology)
- also ensures it can be taken seriously by fellow researchers and the public

Contribution:
- Peers (experts in that research field) are in a position to judge the importance and significance of the research in a wider context
- Research will only get published if it makes an important contribution to the scientific field, and
the research process has been methodologically and ethically sound

Genuine:
- Peers can assess how original the work is and whether it refers to relevant research by other psychologists
- also helps to prevent the dissemination of irrelevant or unjustified findings, personal views or deliberate fraud

Question 220

Limitations of the peer review

Answer 220

Integrity:
- If the reviewer is anonymous it allows them to possibly not accepting
research from others so that their research into that area can be published first (as
they will be competing for limited funding)
- also the possibility that the
reviewer may plagiarise and take the ideas from the piece of research so that they can
publish it

Bias towards positive findings:
- Reports in journals tend to be about findings that support hypotheses, those that don’t, don’t tend to get published
- This can be
called the ‘file-drawer problem’, because if your results are not significant then
researchers keep them in their filing cabinet and they never get written up for
publication
- Given Popper’s ideas on the importance of falsifying theories, this is unfortunate as these can be critical in establishing the credibility of other findings

Time consuming:
- Peer review can take months just to review the report and send it back with suggestions
- This is because those reviewing will be busy with their own deadlines
- If revisions are necessary it can take years before the research is published, delaying publication of important findings

Question 221

Describe data distribution

Answer 221

• When quantitative data is gathered and the frequency (amount) of a variable is
  measured, this can be plotted on a bar chart or histogram (for example)
• When plotted on a graph, the data will form some kind of pattern- a distribution
• can be normal or skewed

Question 222

Describe normal distribution

Answer 222

• This data is symmetrical and when plotted on the graph it forms a bell shaped curve, with as many scores below the mean as above it (50% of the distribution either side)
• Most scores occur around the mean, with fewer scores clustered as they move above and below the mean
• The mean, median and mode are similar (or the same)- midpoint

Question 223

Describe skewed distribution

Answer 223

• Any distribution where the scores are not symmetrical (as in a normal distribution) is a skewed distribution
• Outliers can cause skewed distributions

Question 224

Describe a positive skew

Answer 224

• the long tail is on the right side of the peak
• most of the distribution is on the left
• The mode is at the highest point, but the mean has moved to the right
• The high scoring participants have pulled the mean to the right,
  but the mode and median are unaffected by extreme scores.
• E.g. a hard test where most students did not score very well

Question 225

Describe a negative skew

Answer 225

• the long tail is
  on the left side of the peak
• Most of the distribution is on the right
• The mode is at the highest point, but the mean has moved to the left
• The lower scoring participants have pulled
  the mean to the left, but the mode and median do not include all scores
• E.g. a test which was easy and most students scored well

Question 226

Describe quantitative data

Answer 226

• numerical
• e.g. DV in experiment, closed questions in questionnaire, data from observation checklist
• analysed using statistical techniques

Question 227

Strengths of quantitative data

Answer 227

• objective- numerical- no influence of interpretation and no chance for influence of personal belief- less prone to bias
• easy analysis- statistical techniques are fast to carry out as there are computer programmes that can analyse the data- allows the researcher to use a larger sample size- increases the ability to generalise

Question 228

Limitations of quantitative data

Answer 228

• doesn’t tell us why- only tells us frequency of response not reasons- can make it hard to develop practical applications
• narrow- only certain types of behaviour/phenomena that can be measured using quantitative data-

Question 229

Limitations of quantitative data

Answer 229

• doesn’t tell us why- only tells us frequency of response not reasons- can make it hard to develop practical applications
• narrow- only certain types of behaviour/phenomena that can be measured using quantitative data- reduces the scope of study and means that any behaviour that is studied may be artificial in order to generate the quantitative data needed for the study

Question 230

Describe qualitative data

Answer 230

• data that is in words (not numerical)
• detailed information
• e.g. self report methods
• often analysed by looking for themes in the participants responses

Question 231

Strengths of qualitative data

Answer 231

• rich detail- allows PPs to express own opinions/feelings- gathers a lot of data about PP- gives researcher more meaningful data- more representative of real life
• can explain why- high level of detail- PPs can explain reasons for behaviour- can help to develop more accurate theories and useful practical applications

Question 232

Weaknesses of qualitative data

Answer 232

• subjective- during analysis researchers tend to look for themes- open to bias as different researchers may interpret the data differently- can affect the validity of any conclusions drawn
• difficult to analyse- as the data can’t be analysed statistically, it is very time consuming to analyse- the researcher has to write a transcript of each PPs data and spend time going through each one- may mean it isn’t possible to use as many PPs- hard to generalise

Question 233

Describe primary data

Answer 233

• original data from the participants that has been collected first hand by the
  experimenter themselves
• This may be qualitative or quantitative
• can be carried out using a variety of methods such as questionnaires, interviews, experiments or observation
• has not been published before
• collected specifically for the research being carried out

Question 234

Strengths of primary data

Answer 234

• authentic data obtained from the PPs themselves for the purpose of a particular investigation
• e.g. questionnaires and interviews can be designed in such a way that they specifically target the information that the researcher requires

Question 235

Weaknesses of primary data

Answer 235

• time and effort heavey
• e.g. conductibg experiment requires considerable planning, preparation and resources- whereas secondary data may be accessed in a matter of minutes

Question 236

Describe secondary data

Answer 236

• using data that someone else has researched and has already been analysed and
  published
• This can be accessed via websites, books and government reports
• usually done to provide a starting point of what is already known about a specific topic- not carried
  out specifically for the study
• has often already been subject to statistical testing and significance is already known
• You can then decide in which direction to take your research

Question 237

Strengths of secondary data

Answer 237

• inexpensive and easily accessed- requires minimal effort
• may mean primary data collection isn’t necessary

Question 238

Weaknesses of secondary data

Answer 238

• may be substantial variation in the quality and accuracy of the secondary data
• information may at first appear to be valuable and promising, but, on further investigation, may be outdate or incomplete
• the content of the data may not quite reflect the researchers needs or objectives
• may challenge the validity of any conclusions

Question 239

Describe meta-analysis, evaluate

Answer 239

• research technique that involves using the data from primary research and re-analysing this data
• The data from a number of primary pieces of research can be combined and therefore has a larger sample size and can may identify trends that are not apparent in a single study
• The criteria for including studies has to be strict and therefore this can lead to bias as to which studies are included