Research Methods Flashcards

Question

Weaknesses of Naturalistic Observations

Answer 1

• No control for EV -results rendered invalid • Cause & effect not always clear -lack of control • Risk of Observer Bias - interpretations may be subjective, wrong - results may be unreliable

Answer 2

• Cause & Effect clear -identify IV causes by change in DV • EV controlled -results more valid • Yield qualitative data -increases validity

Answer 3

• Low Mundane Realism / ecological validity -restricts results, can’t be generalised • Observer effects may occur - pps know (overt observation) - social desirability bias - data invalid • Risk if Observer Bias - researchers personal views, opinions influence data recording - inaccurate

Answer 4

Pps give info without researcher interference

Answer 5

Researchers ask PPs questions face-to-face

Answer 6

PPs given written details of questions + instructions of how to record answers

Answer 7

• PPs all given same Qs in order • Closed Qs -therefore • Quantitative data

Answer 8

* Informal in-depth conversational exchange * Not planned, loose plan of themes to ask • Open Qs -therefore • Qualitative Data

Answer 9

* Mixture of structured + unstructured interview techniques * Mixture if closed + open Qs * Mixture if Quantitative + Qualitative data

Answer 10

* Technique used to analyse relationship of 2 Quantitative variables (co-variables) * Data usually obtained from non-experimental source (eg survey)

Answer 11

• Allow strength of relationship to be measured precisely • Allow things to be researched that can’t be manipulated experimentally (practical / ethical reasons) -eg stress + cardiovascular disease • Predictions can be made about one of co-variables based on other co-variable - due to previous correlations - eg conclude as stress increases, cholesterol increases

Answer 12

• Correlational analysis cannot demonstrate Cause & Effect • Correlation ≠ Causation -third unrelated variable may be cause which influences both (usually population density) • Correlations only measure linear relationships - Not Curvilinear Relationships - positive relationship up to certain point then negative (+ vice versa)

Answer 13

* Precise statement about purpose of study and what it intends to find out * Should include what is being studied (DV) and what it's trying to achieve * Eg

Answer 14

• Precise, testable statement about expected outcome of study

Answer 15

* Null hypothesis - IV will have no effect on DV * Alternative hypothesis - IV will have effect on DV - Directional hypothesis - states direction of predicted difference between conditions - Non-Directional hypothesis - does NOT state direction of predicted differences between conditions

Answer 16

* Small-scale investigation conducted before research * Identifies whether there needs to be modifications in study design * Help determine if full-scale study would be feasible / worthwhile

Answer 17

* Group that researchers are actively studying | * Results would ideally be generalised to apply to this group

Answer 18

* Every member of target population has same chance of being selected * Easiest method is drawing sample of names of target population out of hat

Answer 19

• Every nth person from a list is selected

Answer 20

• Classifies target population into categories • Randomly choose sample consisting of PPs from each category -same proportion as appeared in target population

Answer 21

Selects PPs who are readily available + willing to take part

Answer 22

* People self-select to participate in a study. | * Usually research participation is advertised for people to take part

Answer 23

* How PPs are assigned to different conditions | * Independent groups, repeated measures, matched pairs

Answer 24

• Different PPs are used in each conditions -Therefore independent • Usually randomly allocated to balance PP variables

Answer 25

• Order effects don't occur -different PPs each condition - Order effects is when sequence PPs take part in conditions influence behaviour - Eg PPs better w/ practice or bored/fatigued * Demand characteristics reduced, only one condition (less chance guess purpose of study) * Saves time because conditions can be done at same time

Answer 26

* More PPs needed | * Different results may be because PPs variables not IV

Answer 27

Each PP tested in all conditions

Answer 28

* No PP variables (same people all conditions) | * Half number PPs needed compared to independent groups design

Answer 29

• Order effects may affect results -Avoided with counterbalancing - Half PPs do 1 condition first / other do other condition. Then reversed - doesn't eliminate order effects, but controls impact (+allows order effects to be distributed evenly across both conditions) • Demand characteristics more likely to occur • Takes more time -especially if time gap between conditions is required

Answer 30

• Different PPs used in all conditions • PPs in groups are matched on characteristics important for study (age, gender, education) -identical twins often used

Answer 31

* Less risk of order effects * Less risk of demand characteristics * Participant variables unlikely, groups are closely matched

Answer 32

• Twice PPs required compared to repeated measures • Matching PPs process is v difficult. -may still have different motivation levels + fatigue • Matching PPs process is v time consuming

Answer 33

• Characteristics of PPs which may affect DV -Eg IQ, age, gender, personality • Random allocation of PPs to conditions w/ independent groups ensure no bias

Answer 34

• Characteristics of environment that may affect DV -Eg temperature, time of day, lighting, noise • Standardisation used to counteract this -making sure conditions, materials, instructions same for all PPs

Answer 35

• Person collecting data has knowledge of research aim which affects data - Eg observer bias • Double blind technique used to overcome -neither PPs nor investigator know hypothesis or condition PP is in • Standardised scripts written to ensure investigator acts in similar way all PPs

Answer 36

• PPs guess study's purpose + expected behaviour -Eg observer effects + interviewer effects * PPs try to give researcher desired results * Or PPs try to give researcher opposite of desired results (the screw-you-effect) * Or PPs acting unnaturally out of nervousness or social desirability bias

Answer 37

* Specific observable behaviours recorded during observation * Behavioural categories represent more general construct under investigation * Behavioural categories; - allow observers to tally observations into pre-arranged groupings - provide clear focus for researcher - enable proposal of testable hypothesis - allow more objective/scientific data recording - provide data easier to quantify/analyse - should result in greater reliability

Answer 38

* Occurs when observer knows aims of study or hypotheses then influences observations * Overcome with inter-observer reliability - each observer agrees on interpretation of behavioural categories beforehand - observes PPs independently - recordings correlated • Overcome with intra-observer reliability -observation is video recorded so watched several times

Answer 39

• Event sampling - recording every time certain behaviour (/event) occurs in target individual(s) -Eg every time someone smiles • Time sampling - recording behaviours within given time frames -Eg every 30 seconds

Answer 40

• Clarity - no ambiguity for PPs. Avoid double negatives, double-barrelled Qs • Bias - no leading Qs. No social desirability bias. -Respondents may prefer to give answers that make them seem better (especially if Qs are socially sensitive) • Analysis - Qs easy to analyse. Closed Qs easy to analyse compared w/ open. -Though PPs may be forced to select answers that aren't detailed enough

Answer 41

* Filler questions - Adding irrelevant Qs distracts PP from Mai purpose, reduces demand characteristics risk * Sequence of questions - start w/ easy Qs and save so anxiety / defensive inducing Qs for later * Sampling technique - often use stratified sampling so no bias * Pilot study - Qs tested on small group, refined later on

Answer 42

• Could take written notes throughout interview -likely to interfere w/ listening skills * If researcher doesn't write smth PP may feel they said smth useless * Could also be recorded audio or video

Answer 43

• Strength of interview compared to questionnaire is presence of interviewer who is interested in PP answer may increase amount of info provided • Interviewers need to be aware of non-verbal communication (don't sit with arms crossed, don't frown) + listening skills (don't interrupt)

Answer 44

• PPs sign consent form -explains general purpose of study • No pressure to consent and withdraw at any time • Investigators should inform PPs of objectives of investigation -in some cases they can't because demand characteristics

Answer 45

* Investigators have responsibility to protect PPs from physics & psychological harm * Risk of harm should be same as normal life and study should be stopped if harm is suspected * PP should leave research in same condition they entered it

Answer 46

• At start of research all PPs must be aware they can leave at any time -regardless of payment or inducement is offered * Difficult to implement during covert observations * If PPs appear distressed during study they should be reminded of right to withdraw

Answer 47

* PPs data not disclosed to anyone unless agreed in advance * Numbers or letters used instead of names if research is published * Confidentiality means data can be traced back to a name * Anonymity means it cannot since PPs never provided their name

Answer 48

* Withholding of info/misleading of PP is unacceptable if PP likely to show unease once found out about deception * Intentional deception of PPs over purpose and general nature of investigation should be avoided wherever possible (medical/scientific justification) * If unavoidable then ethics committee must approve. Cost-benefit analysis determine if research should be carried out * Id deception used then real purpose of study/what occurred in other conditions must be explained after study (also told why deception was necessary)

Answer 49

* PPs told aim of study and info about other conditions after study * Researcher check on PP's welfare and remind of right to withdraw and right to confidentiality * Does not provide justification for unethical aspects of research

Answer 50

• Research proposal submitted to panel of psychologists for peer review -panel decides if research is worth funding * Published in scientific journal for peer review again after research conducted + research report written * Reviewers can - accept manuscript - accept with revisions - suggest author makes revisions & re-submit - reject without possibility of re-submission

Answer 51

* Psychologists conduct independent scrutiny of research report before deciding if should be published * Psychologists work in similar field to research investigating * Research considered in terms of - validity - significance and originality - appropriateness of methodology - experimental design • Purpose is - ensure quality + relevance of research - ensure accuracy of findings - evaluate proposed designs for research funding • Prevents - dissemination of irrelevant findings - unwarranted claims - unacceptable interpretations - personal views - deliberate fraud

Answer 52

• Independent scrutiny increases probability of errors being identified -authors are less objective about own work * Double blind procedure used so researcher is kept anonymous + research who does peer review isn't known * Involves specialist psychologist in field judging work, have exceptional knowledge and expertise to make best judgement - Not always possible to find appropriate expert - Possible that poor research may be positively peer reviewed because reviewer didn't understand it

Answer 53

• Journals prefer positive results since editors want to increase standing of journal - therefore published work biased - therefore misperception of facts - eg research finding gender differences more likely published than no differences in gender - leads to misperception men and women are Very different • Unfair process whereby some reviewers have connections with certain uni's -therefore favouritism or bias towards researchers dependent on institution

Answer 54

* Helps understand how behaviour and attitudes can be changed * Used to encourage people to engage in more healthy behaviours (eating healthily) * Results in healthier people therefore reduced pressure on NHS resources and improved productivity (less time off work sick)

Answer 55

* Cognitive interview improved amount of accurate information collected from eyewitnesses * Implication is amount of money spent on wrongful arrests/imprisonments & wasted police time is vastly reduced

Answer 56

* Research disputing Bowlby's monotropic theory allows both parents to equally provide emotional support for children * Households have more flexible working arrangements * Examples include mothers earn more at work and fathers stay at home, couples share child care evenly * Modern parents are better equipped to maximise their income and contribute more effectively to the economy

Answer 57

• Drug therapies research has been essential in reducing cost of mental illness to economy + returning people to work • Findings lead to improvements in psych health/treatment programmes -People manage health better, less time off work • Findings lead to better ways of managing people prone to mental health issues whilst at work -improving productivity * May encourage investment from overseas companies * Providing treatments but be financial burden. - New therapies > old therapies - New therapies £ > old therapies £

Answer 58

• Involves numbers and can be measured objectively. -quantifiable • Examples include - dependent variable - closed questions in questionnaires - structured interviews - tally of no. times behavioural category seen in observation

Answer 59

• Involves words - data based on subjectve interpretation of language - only quantifiable if data categorised + frequency counted • Examples include - Open questions in questionnaires - Transcript from unstructured interview - Researchers describing what they see in an observation • Challenging to analyse because it relies on interpretation by the researcher -prone to subjectiveness, bias, innacuracies • Difficult to categorise into sensible number of answer types

Answer 60

Data collected directly by researcher for purpose of investigation

Answer 61

• Information collected for a purpose other than current use • Could be for different study. Could be different researcher - Could use government statistics • Substantial variation in quality + accuracy

Answer 62

* Combining results from different studies on specific topic for overall view * Results generalised across larger populations, data viewed with more confidence * Prone to publication bias, researcher leaves out studies with negative or non-significant results

Answer 63

Mean median and mode