Research methods Flashcards
What are aims?
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate; the purpose of the study. They are developed from theories.
What is a hypothesis?
A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated. Stated at the outset the outset of any study.
What are the two types of hypothesis?
Explain them.
Directional hypothesis - states the direction of the difference or relationship e.g higher / lower.
Non-directional hypothesis - states there is a difference but doesn’t state the direction.
When do you use the two different types of hypothesis?
Directional is used when the findings of previous research studies suggest a particular outcome.
Non-directional is used when there is no previous research or findings from earlier studies are contradictory.
What is the independent variable?
The variable that is changed / manipulated.
What is the dependent variable?
The variable that is measured.
What is operationalisation?
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.
What are extraneous variables?
Any variable, other than the IV, that may have an effect on the DV if it’s not controlled. E.g. age, lighting in lab.
They are nuisance variables that don’t vary systematically with the IV.
What are confounding variables?
Any variable, other than the IV, that may have affected the DV so we cannot be sure of the true source of changes to the DV. E.g. Personality.
Confounding variables do vary systematically with the IV.
What are demand characteristics?
Any clue that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation. This may lead to participants changing their behaviour within the research situation meaning their behaviour is no longer natural, an extraneous variable that may affect the DV.
What are investigator effects?
Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious and unconscious) on the research outcome. E.g. actions of researcher, selection of participants, leading questions.
What is randomisation?
The use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias.
What is standardisation?
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study. E.g. same environment, information and instructions.
What is experimental design?
The different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the different experimental conditions.
Describe an independent groups design.
When two separate groups of participants experience two different conditions of the experiment. One group experience the experimental conditions, the other experiences the control condition.
The performance of the two groups is then compared.
Describe a repeated measures design.
All participants experience both conditions, the experimental and the control.
The two sets of data from both conditions would then be compared to see if there was a difference, this method compares ‘like with like’.
Describe a matched pairs design.
Participants are paired together on a variable or variables relevant to the experiment. Then one participant from each pair would be allocated to a different condition of the experiment.
The two sets of data are then compared.
Evaluate independent groups.
L - participants who occupy the different groups are not the same, so if a difference between the groups is found it could be due to individual differences rather than the effects on the IV.
L- less economical as each participant only contributes a single result only. Twice as many participants are needed to collect the same amount of data as a repeated measures.
S - order effects are not a problem.
S - participants are less likely to guess the aims.
How do you overcome individual differences in an independent groups design?
Random allocation, participants are randomly allocated to the different conditions.
Evaluate repeated measures.
L - order effects, the first condition could affect the second, could also create boredom or fatigue that might deteriorate / improve the performance on the second condition. (order effects are a confounding variable)
L - more likely participants will work out the aim of the study (demand characteristics)
S - participant variables are controlled and fewer participants are needed.
How do you overcome order effects in a repeated measures design?
Counterbalancing, half experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order.
Evaluate matched pairs.
S - no order effects or demand characteristics.
L - participants can never be matched exactly so there will still be some differences that could affect the DV.
L - matching may be time-consuming and expensive, particularly if a pre-test is required. So this is less economical than other designs.
Describe lab experiments.
They are conducted in highly controlled environments.
What are the strengths of lab experiments?
- There is high control over extraneous variables.
- There is a high chance due to the control that any effect is due to the manipulation of the IV.
- More certainty about demonstrating cause and effect so high internal validity.
- Replication is more possible, this is vital in checking that the results are valid and not just a one-off.
What are the limitations of lab experiments?
- May lack generalisability as lab environment is artificial.
- In unfamiliar contexts participants may behave in unusual ways and so behaviour can’t be generalised (low external validity).
- Participants are usually aware they are being tested in a lab and so may give way to demand characteristics.
- Tasks carried out don’t represent real-life experience so low mundane realism.
What are field experiments?
Where the IV is manipulated in a natural, more everyday setting.
What are the strengths of field experiments?
- Higher mundane realism because the environment is more natural.
- Produces behaviour that is more valid and authentic.
- Participants may be unaware they are being studies so there is high external validity.
What are the limitations of field experiments?
- Loss of control of extraneous variables so cause and effect between the IV and the DV may be harder to establish.
- Precise replication is often not possible.
- Ethical issues, if participants are unaware they’re being studied they cannot consent to being studied and so the research might be an invasion of privacy.
What are natural experiments?
When the researcher takes advantage of a pre-existing IV. The change to the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher wasn’t there.
What are the strengths of natural experiments?
- Provide opportunities for research that may not otherwise be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons.
- High external validity because they involve real-life issues and problems as they happen.
What are the limitations of natural experiments?
- A naturally occurring event may only happen very rarely, reducing the opportunities for research.
- Limit to the scope for generalising findings to other similar situations.
- Participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions, means researcher might be less sure whether the IV affected the DV.
What are quasi-experiments?
When an IV is based on an existing difference between people. E.g. age, gender.
What are the strengths of quasi-experiments?
- Often carried out under controlled conditions and so share the same strengths of a lab experiment.
What are the limitations of quasi-experiments?
- Can’t randomly allocate participants to conditions and therefore there may be confounding variables.
What is a population/ target population?
The large group of individuals that a researcher may be interested in studying.
What is a sample?
A group of people who take part in a research investigation, it is drawn from the (target) population. Ideally, the sample will be representative so that generalisability becomes possible.
How is there bias in a sample?
Certain groups may be over or under-represented within the sample selected.
What is a sampling technique?
The method used to select people from the population. They aim to produce a representative sample.
Describe a random sample.
All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.
To select, a complete list of all members of the target population is obtained. Then, all of the names are assigned a number, these numbers are then picked randomly through a lottery method or picking them out of a hat.
Describe a systematic sample.
When every nth member of the target population is selected.
A sampling frame is produced, which is a list of people in the target population organised into an order.
A sampling system is nominated (every 5th or 6th) or this interval may be determined randomly to reduce bias.
The researcher then works through the sampling frame until the sample is completed.
Describe a stratified sample.
Where the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub-groups (strata) within the target population.
The researcher first identifies the different strata that makes up the population, the proportions needed for the sample are then worked out and need to be representative.
The participants that make up each stratum are selected using random sampling.
Describe an opportunity sample.
A sample of anyone who happens to be willing and available. The researcher asks whoever is around at the time of the study.
Describe a volunteer sample.
This involves participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample, so also known as self-selection.
To select a volunteer sample a researcher may place an advert in a newspaper or on a common room notice board.
Evaluate random sampling.
S - free from researcher bias.
L - difficult and time-consuming to conduct, a complete list of the target population may be difficult to obtain.
L - could still end up with an unrepresentative sample.
L- selected participants could still refuse to take part meaning you could technically end up with a volunteer sample.
Evaluate systematic sampling.
S - avoids researcher bias.
S - fairly representative.
Evaluate stratified sampling.
S - avoids researcher bias.
S - produces a representative sample because it reflects the composition of the population, this means generalisation of findings become possible.
L - stratification is not perfect because the identified strata can’t reflect all the ways people are different, so complete representation is not possible.
Evaluate opportunity sampling.
S - convenient, it saves time and effort and is much less costly in terms of time and money.
L - suffers from bias, the sample is unrepresentative of the target population so findings can’t be generalised.
L - the researcher has complete control over the selection of participants and may avoid people they don’t like the look of (researcher bias).
Evaluate volunteer sampling.
S - collecting sample is easy, it requires minimal effort and so is less time-consuming.
L - problem of volunteer bias, asking for volunteers may attract a certain profile of person, one that is helpful, keen and curious. This might affect how far findings can be generalised.
Define ethical issues and state the four ethical issues.
Ethical issues arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data. Informed consent Deception Protection from harm Privacy and confidentiality
Describe the ethical issue informed consent.
Informed consent involves making participants aware of the aims or the research, the procedures, their rights (including the right to withdraw) and also what their data will be used for.
Participants should then make an informed judgement whether or not to take part without being coerced or feeling obliged.
Describe the ethical issue of deception.
Deception is deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation. Participants who haven’t received adequate information when they agreed to take part cannot be said to have given informed consent.
Despite that, there are occasions when deception can be justified if it does not cause the participant undue distress.
Describe the ethical issue to protection from harm.
Participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would be in their daily lives, and should be protected from physical and psychological harm. An important feature is participants being reminded of the fact that they have the right to withdraw from the investigation at any point.
Describe the ethical issue privacy and confidentiality.
Participants have the right to control information about themselves (right of privacy). If this is invaded then confidentiality should be protected.
Confidentiality refers to our right, under the law in data protection, to have any personal data protected. This right to privacy extends to the area where the study took place.
State the three alternative ways of getting consent and describe them.
Presumptive consent - rather than getting consent from the participants themselves, a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable. If this group agree, then consent of the original participants is presumed.
Prior general consent - participants give their permission to take part in a number of different studies, including one that will involve deception. By consenting, participants are effectively consenting to be deceived.
Retrospective consent - participants are asked for their consent during debriefing, having already taken part in the study. They may not have been aware of their participation or they may have been subject to deception.
Describe the BPS code of conduct.
The BPS (British Psychological Society) has its own BPS code of ethics, these include ethical guidelines. Researchers have a professional duty to observe these guidelines when conducting research. These guidelines make sure that participants are treated with respect and consideration. Guidelines are implemented by the ethics committees who use a cost-benefit approach to determine if research proposals are ethically acceptable.
How do you deal with informed consent?
Participants should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate. Assuming the participant agrees, the letter is then signed. For children under 16, a signature of parental consent is required.
