Research methods 1+2

Question 1

what is an independent variable?

Answer 1

it is the different conditions (groups) within the study. Researchers often use a control group as one of the condition of the IV

Question 2

what is the dependent variable?

Answer 2

the variable which is affected by the IV. (It is the data collected from the participants in the study/what the researcher counts)

Question 3

what is a control group?

Answer 3

A group in an experiment that closely resembles the people under investigation but is not subjected to the factor under study (e.g. does not receive treatment). They are used as a benchmark that those being tested are compared to

Question 4

what is an extraneous variable and why are they controlled?

Answer 4

• Any variable other than the independent variable that could affect the dependent variable (if not controlled).
• are controlled so that they do not vary across any of the experimental conditions or between participants.

Question 5

what are confounding variables and why are they uncontrolled?

Answer 5

• Is an extraneous variable that may have had an effect upon the DV, its effect cannot be separated from that of the IV. A confounding variable is an extraneous variable that has not been controlled (possibly because they are not possible to control). This occurs when the researcher fails to identify & control for an extraneous variable
• uncontrolled extraneous variables that may affect the DV and therefore reduce the internal validity of the results

Question 6

what are situational variables and how can they be controlled?

Answer 6

• Aspects of participants’ environment or the task that might affect their behaviour in the study e.g. the lighting or temperature in the room.
• having carefully standardised experimental procedures and test conditions

Question 7

what are participant variables and how can they be controlled?

Answer 7

• Characteristics of individual participants (such as their age, sex, intelligence, motivation) that might influence the outcome of a study.
• These are more difficult to control but can be partially controlled through the design of the study (using matched pairs/repeated measures or random allocation if using independent groups).

Question 8

what are demand characteristics and how can they be controlled?

Answer 8

• Cues in the environment that the participant can use to work out the aim and hypothesis of the study. Demand characteristics can lead to social desirability effects where the participant behaves in a way they think the researcher will want (or the reverse when the participant deliberately tries to spoil the research). Either way, the results would have low internal validity as the researcher is aiming to measure NATURAL BEHAVIOUR.
• be controlled by using different participants in each condition (matched pairs or independent groups) or counterbalancing (in a repeated measures design). Also, by not giving too much information about the aim and procedure in the standardised instructions and consent form

Question 9

what are investigator effects and how can they be controlled?

Answer 9

• Any (unintentional) influence of the researcher’s behaviour/characteristics on participants/data/outcome.
• using more than one researcher checking inter-rater reliability, using the double/single blind method (see improving validity), or by randomization

Question 10

how could investigator effects be minimised in an interview?

Answer 10

• provide a standardised script for the interviewers to use so that they all asked the same questions in the same way to avoid any bias in the students’ responses
• the interviewers could have been trained to greet the students in the same way and ask questions with a neutral tone
• ensure all interviewers were female or all interviewers were male
• ensure that the students were interviewed by someone of the same gender as themselves.

Question 11

what is standardisation and what is it a method of?

Answer 11

Method of control
Standardisation refers to ways in which procedures/ materials within an investigation are kept the same for all participants.

Question 12

what is randomisation and what is it a method of? what are the benefits of it?

Answer 12

Method of control
Randomisation refers to the use of chance to minimise the researcher’s influence on the design/ materials/ procedures of the investigation.

Randomisation can be used to select:
* The order of words on a list should so that the position of
each word is not decided by the experimenter.
* The order that participants complete each condition of an
Experiment

Benefit of randomisation:
* eliminates investigator effect/bias - one stimulus cannot be made to be easier or harder than the other when they are being created e.g. a word list
* this is because the investigator has no control/choice over which stimulus is used in each condition or what order the participants complete the conditions in

Question 13

what is standardised instructions and what is it a method of?

Answer 13

Method of control
The purpose of standardised instruction is to:
* Explain the procedures of the study relevant to participants/ describe exactly what participants are expected to do (including a description of the task).
* Include a check of understanding of instructions.
* Inform participants that they will be debriefed at the end of the study.
* Remind them that they have the right to withdraw from the study at any point.
* Give the participants the opportunity to ask you any questions about what they are about to do.

Question 14

what is a laboratory experiment?

Answer 14

• are carried out in a controlled environment.
• This allows the researcher to exert a high level of control over the independent variable and to control extraneous variables.

Question 15

what are the strengths of a laboratory experiment?

Answer 15

Control over extraneous variables/establish cause and effect:
* This means that the researcher can be confident that the IV (and only the IV) is affecting the DV and can therefore establish cause and effect. This is a strength because it increases internal validity of the study.

Replicability:
* Lab experiments are replicable because the researcher has a high degree of control and uses standardised procedures; this allows the exact study to be repeated by other researchers. This is a strength because if the study is repeated and the same results are obtained the study has high external reliability.

Question 16

what are the limitation of a laboratory experiment?

Answer 16

Demand characteristics & investigator effects are more likely to confound results
* As participants know that they are part of a study, are in a controlled environment and engage in carefully set up tasks they may find it easy to guess the aim of the study and change their behaviour. This is a limitation because it decreases internal validity of the study.

Low ecological validity:
* As the lab setting is not a typical one and the stimulus material used in lab experiments is often quite unlike real life, lab experiments tend to have low mundane realism. As a result the behaviour demonstrated in lab experiments may not reflect how participants would behave outside the research setting. This is a limitation because it decreases external (ecological) validity of the study.

Question 17

what are the strengths of a quasi experiment?

Answer 17

Control over extraneous variables/establish cause and effect:
* Quasi experiments take place in controlled conditions and the researcher manipulates the task that participants undertake so they can be confident that the IV (and only the IV) is affecting the DV and can therefore establish cause and effect. This is a strength because it increases internal validity of the study.

Replicability:
* Quasi experiments are conducted in highly controlled conditions with standardised procedures and are therefore replicable (the exact same procedure can be repeated by other researchers). This is a strength because if the study is repeated and the same results are obtained the study has high external reliability.

Question 18

what are the strengths of a natural experiment?

Answer 18

High ecological validity:
* In a natural experiment the IV and DV occur naturally so all behaviour being investigated is completely natural. This is a strength because it increases external (ecological) validity of the study.
Reduction of demand characteristics:
* Participants are usually unaware that they are taking part in a study so their behaviour is unlikely to be affected by demand characteristics. This is a strength because the study is likely to be measuring natural behaviour which increases internal validity of the study.
Ethical method for Socially Sensitive Research:
* In a natural experiment it is possible to study variables that it would be unethical to manipulate in a lab setting. This is a strength because they can provide insight into topics that could not be in any other way.

Question 19

what are the strengths of a field experiment?

Answer 19

High ecological validity:
* Field studies are carried out in a real world setting and the tasks participants are given often resemble real life (high mundane realism). Participants’ behaviour in a field study is therefore likely to be reflective of how they would behave in real life. This is a strength because it increases external (ecological) validity of the study.

Reduction of demand characteristics:
* Participants are usually unaware that they are taking part in a study so their behaviour is unlikely to be affected by demand characteristics and will therefore be natural. This is a strength because it increases the internal validity of the study

Question 20

what are the limitation of a field experiment?

Answer 20

Low control over extraneous variables:
* It is difficult to have high levels of control over extraneous variables in real life situations. This means that the researcher cannot be confident that the IV (and only the IV) is affecting the DV and it is therefore difficult to establish cause and effect. This is a limitation because it reduces the internal validity of the study.

Difficult to replicate:
* As a result of low control over extraneous variables, the exact replication of field experiments is more difficult than with a lab experiment. This is a limitation because it is very difficult to test the external reliability of the results.

Unethical:
* Participants are ‘passers-by’ and often do not know that they are part of a study. This is a limitation because researchers often do not obtain informed consent. Additionally, as participants are not aware that they are part of a study they cannot withdraw from the investigation and may not be debriefed

Question 21

what are the limitation of a natural experiment?

Answer 21

Low control over extraneous variables:
* As the IV and DV are not manipulated by the researcher it is not possible to control extraneous variables so the researcher cannot be confident that the IV is causing the DV. This is a limitation because it reduces the internal validity of the study.

Difficult to replicate:
* As a result of low control over extraneous variables, the exact replication of a natural experiment is more difficult than with a lab experiment. This is a limitation because it is very difficult to test the external reliability of the results.

Question 22

what are the limitation of a quasi experiment?

Answer 22

Control over extraneous variables/establish cause and effect:
* take place in controlled conditions and the researcher manipulates the task that participants undertake so they can be confident that the IV (and only the IV) is affecting the DV and can therefore establish cause and effect. This is a strength because it increases internal validity of the study.

Replicability:
* are conducted in highly controlled conditions with standardised procedures and are therefore replicable (the exact same procedure can be repeated by other researchers). This is a strength because if the study is repeated and the same results are obtained the study has high external reliability.

Question 23

what is a field experiment?

Answer 23

• are carried out in a real-world setting rather than the laboratory.
• The experimenter still deliberately manipulates the independent variable in order to record its effect on the dependent variable however participants are in a natural environment and are usually ‘passers-by’

Question 24

what is a natural experiment?

Answer 24

A type of experiment where the IV and DV occur naturally and the researcher simply measures the DV.

Question 25

what is a quasi experiment?

Answer 25

* A type of experiment where the IV is pre-existing/naturally (e.g. gender or age) occurring but the researcher manipulates the task that participants are required to complete. * take place under controlled conditions and the aim is to establish if the naturally occurring IV causes differences in performance on the task (the DV). * participants are not randomly allocated to each condition as the different conditions of the IV are pre-determined by a pre-existing characteristic that is out of the researcher’s control.

Question 26

what do self report methods/ techniques include?

Answer 26

questionnaires and interviews

Question 27

what is self report data?

Answer 27

collected when the participant gives information to the researcher/provides details of own feelings/thoughts/behaviour. It involves responding to questions on a questionnaire/during interview and gathers subjective data about participants’ personal experiences.

Question 28

what is a questionnaire?

Answer 28

Participants record their answers to a pre-set list of questions usually concerning behaviour, opinions and attitudes.

Question 29

what is a closed question questionnaire?

Answer 29

The researcher determines the range of possible answers in advance e.g. yes/no. They are mainly used when factual information is required e.g. did you have a happy childhood? Yes/No. Alternatively, the researcher could ask participants to rate how happy their childhood was on a scale of 1 to 10. Closed questions tend to generate quantitative (numerical) data.

Question 30

what is a strength of closed question questionnaire?

Answer 30

* They produce quantitative data. This is a strength because such data is easy to quantify and analyse. Furthermore, it is easy to check the reliability of the results. * Closed questions would present participants with options for their response so the researchers would be able to collate and display the information collected easily. * Closed questions make it easy to compare specific response to questions the researchers wanted answered – they can be sure there will be certain information because they have restricted the options to include that information.

Question 31

what is a limitation of closed question questionnaire?

Answer 31

The main limitation is that the amount of information in the answers is very limited because participants only can only select their answer from the ones that the researcher has provided. This is a limitation because it can reduce internal validity of the results.

Question 32

what is an open question questionnaire?

Answer 32

The researcher requires a descriptive answer with no restriction on the response given by the participant (the participants use their own words to provide their answers) e.g. explain how you felt on your first day at school. Open questions tend to produce qualitative (non-numerical) data

Question 33

what is a strength of open question questionnaire?

Answer 33

* The main strength of open questions is that they can produce rich, detailed information (qualitative data). This is a strength because it can increase internal validity of the results. * Open questions allow respondents to interpret the question as they wish to and develop their response with detail or depth – so there is lots of information received. * Open questions allow the researchers to pursue a line of enquiry that they may not have predicted but which comes to light because of a response by an interviewee.

Question 34

what is a strength of questionnaires?

Answer 34

Speed of data collection: * Questionnaires are quick to complete and the researcher can test all participants at the same time (whereas with an interview the researcher has to interview each participant separately). This is a strength because the researcher can gather a lot of information in a short space of time which will save them time and money. Validity of Findings: * People may be happier to disclose detailed and personal information if they don’t have to do so face to face and therefore might provide more truthful answers. This is a strength because data obtained through questionnaires might be high in internal validity (however, some people might disclose less information because they do not feel the pressure to expand on their answers). Easy to replicate and test the reliability of findings: * As questionnaires use standardised questions they are easy to replicate. This is a strength because if the exact study is repeated and the same results are obtained the study has high external reliability. Researcher bias is unlikely to confound results: * Unlike in an interview, participants can answer a questionnaire without the researcher being present so experimenter bias and investigator effects are unlikely to confound the results. This is a strength as it increases internal validity of the study

Question 35

what is a limitation of open question questionnaire?

Answer 35

The main limitation of open questions is that they produce qualitative data. This is a limitation because such data is not easy to quantify and analyse so it is difficult to check the reliability of the results.

Question 36

what is a limitation of questionnaires?

Answer 36

Self-report data might not be valid: * When completing questionnaires, people may not accurately recall information or may wish to be seen in a favourable light so may provide ‘socially desirable’ answers (lie). This is a limitation because if this were to happen it would reduce the internal validity of the study. Leading questions: * Some questions in a questionnaire can lead respondents to give particular responses e.g. ‘When were you last late for college?’ as opposed to ‘Have you ever been late for college? This is a limitation because if the participant provides inaccurate information as a result of leading questions the internal validity of the study will be reduced. Misinterpretation: * As the researcher may not be present when participants complete the questionnaire they cannot seek clarification if they are unsure what the question is asking them. Furthermore, participants’ answers may be misinterpreted by the researcher. This is a limitation because if either of these happen the internal validity of the study would be reduced

Question 37

When constructing a questionnaire, what should researchers consider?

Answer 37

* Aims – having an overall aim of the questionnaire makes it easier to select appropriate questions for the questionnaire * Length – questionnaires should be short and to the point – the longer the questionnaire the less likely it is that people will complete it * Previous questionnaires – use examples of questionnaires that already exist and have been shown to be valid as a basis of your questionnaire * Question formation – questions should be concise, unambiguous and easily understood * Use a pilot study - A small-scale prototype of the questionnaire should be given to a small sample from the target population in advance of the main survey in order to discover whether there are any problems with the design, such as ambiguous or misleading questions. Poor questions can then be corrected or removed before the main survey. * Measurement scales – some questionnaires use measurement scales to assess psychological characteristics or attitudes. Researchers must decide if this is an appropriate method for gathering data to test their aim. Such questionnaires would produce data that is easy to analyse but it would lack detail and, as many participants simply select the middle value which can reduce internal validity

Question 38

what are structured interviews?

Answer 38

* Made up of a pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order * Like a questionnaire but conducted face to face (or over the phone) in real time i.e. the interviewer asks a question and waits for a response

Question 39

what are unstructured interviews?

Answer 39

* There are no set questions * There is a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed * Interaction is free-flowing * The participant is encouraged to expand and elaborate on their answers as prompted by the interviewer. * Works like a conversation

Question 40

what is a limitation of interviews?

Answer 40

Self-report data might not be valid: * When engaging in an interview people may not accurately recall information or may wish to be seen in a favourable light and may provide ‘socially desirable’ answers (lie) particularly because they do not want to be judged by the researcher. This is a limitation because if this were to happen it would reduce the internal validity of the research. Speed of data collection and analysis: * It can take a long time to interview each participant individually and then analyse the results. This is a limitation because interviews can be very time consuming and expensive for the researcher. Interviewer effects: * Interviewers may inadvertently influence the respondent’s answers by the way they ask the questions or through body language etc. Interviews are prone to demand characteristics which may lead to social desirability bias. This is a limitation because if this does happen it will reduce the internal validity of the research. Researcher bias: * Misinterpretation or partial interpretation of data can occur in interviews e.g. the researcher might (accidently) interpret participants’ answers in a way that supports their hypothesis. It also may be difficult for the interviewer to be detached because they may form an interpersonal relationship with the participant and thus may lose objectivity. This is a limitation because if this does happen it will reduce the internal validity of the research.

Question 41

what is a limitation of unstructured interviews?

Answer 41

* As unstructured interviews do not use standardised questions they are difficult to replicate. This is a limitation because it is not possible to test the external reliability of the study.

Question 42

what is a limitation of structured interviews?

Answer 42

* As structured interviews use standardised questions any unexpected response cannot be pursued for more detail. This is a limitation because the researcher is less likely to gain detailed information than when using an unstructured interview.

Question 43

what is a strength of interviews?

Answer 43

Easy to deal with misunderstandings: * When conducting an interview, ambiguity or misunderstandings can be clarified (this is not possible with a questionnaire) and the researchers can make sure that participants understand the questions. There is also scope for follow-up (especially if using a non-structured interview) i.e. asking participants to further explain their answer. This is a strength because it increases internal validity of the study. Validity of Findings (however, ethical issues): * People may disclose more detailed answers and personal information in an interview than a questionnaire because the presence of the researcher may encourage the participant to expand on their answers. Furthermore, it might be easier to see if participants were answering honestly because their reactions could be observed. This is a strength because data obtained through interviews might have higher internal validity than that obtained through questionnaires however, there is the potential for participants to reveal more than they wish which may lead to stress/psychological harm. It can also have the opposite effect as some people might disclose less information because they feel embarrassed disclosing information to a stranger. Qualitative data: * Qualitative data obtained from interviews is likely to provide depth, detail, greater diversity of responses and more meaningful information. This is a strength because it increases internal validity of the study. Furthermore, it avoids participant frustration associated with fixed choice responses that could occur in a closed question questionnaire

Question 44

what is a strength of unstructured interviews?

Answer 44

Flexibility: * Un-structured interviews enable the researcher to explore complex issues that may be difficult to investigate through experimental techniques, questionnaires or observational research. The interviewer can tailor questions to the responses of an interviewee so that issues can be explored in depth. This is a strength because participants’ answers are likely to be detailed and rich in information which increases the internal validity of the study.

Question 45

what is a strength of structured interviews?

Answer 45

Replicable: * As structured interviews use standardised questions they are quite straight forward to replicate. This is a strength because the researcher can assess the external reliability of the study.

Question 46

what is informed consent?

Answer 46

Whenever possible, the investigator should inform participants about all aspects of the study including: aims and procedures of the study, participants’ rights (including their right to withdraw), and what their data will be used for. Participants should make an informed judgment without feeling coerced or feeling obliged to take part in the research.

Question 47

how do you deal with informed consent?

Answer 47

A consent form must be completed by all participants. The consent form must include information about all relevant detail that might affect their decision to part including: aims and procedures of the study, participants’ rights (including their right to withdraw), and what their data will be used for. If the participant agrees to take part in the study they should sign and date the consent form. Where research involves any persons less than 16 years of age, consent should be obtained from parents or teachers as well as the participants.

Question 48

what is presumptive consent?

Answer 48

Asking people who are similar to the participants whether they would consider the research to be acceptable enough to take part in themselves. If so, it is assumed that others (including the real participants) would also take part.

Question 49

what is prior general consent?

Answer 49

Asking people who volunteer to take part in research general questions before they are used such as ‘Would you mind taking part in a study that involved you being misinformed about its true nature?’ ‘Would you mind being in a study that caused you stress?’ If they say they don’t mind then they could be chosen to take part later.

Question 50

what is retrospective consent?

Answer 50

Giving participants a full debriefing after the study and asking them to consent to their results being used now that they know all aspects of the study (aims and procedures ec). If they do not consent, they have the opportunity to withdraw their data from the investigation.

Question 50

how do you deal with deception?

Answer 50

Give participants as much information as possible in the standardised instructions and consent form and make sure that all details of the study are provided in the debrief e.g. the true aim of the study, details about what the other groups/experimental conditions were required to do. As deception might make participants feel embarrassed or self-conscious they should be reassured that their behaviour is typical or normal and the researcher should provide counselling if they need it or refer participants to a counsellor if they are not qualified to do so. At the end of the study students should be given a full debrief where they are made aware of the deception. Once participants have been informed about the deception, they should be given the right to withdraw their data if they would like to.

Question 51

what is deception?

Answer 51

Researchers are not allowed to deliberately mislead or withhold information from participants about any aspect of the study. This includes providing inadequate information for participants to make an informed decision about their participation in the study. This ethical issue is very closely linked to informed consent (see above) as a participant cannot give informed consent if they have been deceived. Deception can sometimes be justified if the procedure will not cause participants undue distress and it can be a strategy that researchers use to reduce demand characteristics (the ethics committee will decide if it is acceptable to deceive participants).

Question 52

what is protection of participants from harm?

Answer 52

It is the researcher’s responsibility to ensure that they protect all participants from physical and psychological harm during the investigation including embarrassment, feelings of inadequacy, induced stress or pressure. Normally, the risk of harm must be no greater than in ordinary life.

Question 53

how do you deal with protection of participants from harm?

Answer 53

The researcher must make sure that their procedure is safe and that participants will not suffer any physical or psychological harm from their participation in the study. The researcher must also ensure that participants are aware of their right to withdraw so that they can stop their participation if they feel that they are experiencing any harm. If the researcher suspects that the study is causing any harm (e.g. undue stress, anxiety or anger) then they should terminate the research even when the participant has not asked to withdraw. It is the researcher’s responsibility to carry out a debrief and to ascertain if participants have experienced any harm throughout the course of the study. The researcher should provide counselling if it is required or should refer participants to a counsellor if they are not qualified to give advice/counselling.

Question 54

what is confidentiality and privacy?

Answer 54

Under the data protection act participants have the right to have any personal data protected. This means that any information obtained about a participant during an investigation is confidential unless otherwise agreed in advance. Participants have a right to expect that information they provide will not be able to be traced back to them and have the right to control information about them (right of privacy). This extends to not naming institutions and/or geographical locations in the report.

Question 55

what is withdrawal from investigation?

Answer 55

From the beginning of the study, investigators should make it clear to participants (including children) that they can stop their participation in the study at any point if they feel that they do not want to continue. This includes telling the researcher that they do not want their results to be used once they have completed the research.

Question 56

what is debriefing?

Answer 56

Following any study participants should be debriefed. A debrief serves three functions: it should be used to complete the participants' understanding of the study, it allows the researcher to monitor any unforeseen negative effects of the study, it should be used to find out if anything has upset or disturbed the participant. The participant should leave the study in the same state as they entered it. So if, for example, the study raised the anxiety levels of the participant then the debriefing should be used to lower their anxiety.

Question 57

how do you deal with confidentiality and privacy?

Answer 57

The researcher must ensure that all personal details protected and (in most instances) are not even recorded. In the report write up the researcher should not name participants but instead should refer to them as Participant 1, Participant 2 etc. or initials (the latter is most common in a case study). Participants should be reminded in the consent form, standardised instructions and debrief that anonymity will be maintained

Question 58

how do you deal with withdrawal from investigation?

Answer 58

Ensure that the participants are reminded of their right to withdraw in the consent form, standardised instructions and the debrief, and ensure that the procedure does not make participants feel that they are forced to continue. If participants are under 16 parents/guardians should also be informed about the right to withdraw.

Question 59

how do you deal with debriefing?

Answer 59

Fully debrief each participant after the study and allow participants to ask questions/clarify their participation. The debrief should include: aims and procedures of the study, remind participants of their rights (including their right to withdraw), and explain to them what their data will be used for. If participants are under 16 parents should also be debriefed.