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Research Methodology > Research Methodology > Flashcards

Research Methodology Flashcards

1
Q

What is research?

A

The systemic investigation into a study of materials & sources in order to establish facts & reach new conclusions

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2
Q

What comes under experimental research?

A
  • hypothesis
  • variables
  • deductive approach
  • objective
  • quantitative data
  • cause & effect
  • statistical analysis
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3
Q

What comes under non-experimental research?

A
  • open research question
  • no defined variables
  • inductive approach
  • subjective
  • qualitative data
  • identify meanings/experiences
  • interpretive analysis
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4
Q

Define experimental research

A

Determining the cause of something by isolating hypothesised causes & comparing the controlled results.

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5
Q

What are the 2 paradigms?

A
  • ontology - what is reality

- epistemology - understanding of knowledge

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6
Q

What is equality of opportunity?

A

Everyone gets equal regardless of circumstances

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7
Q

What is equality of outcome?

A

Try to get final outcome at same level

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8
Q

What are the 4 philosophical worldviews?

A
  • positivist
  • constructivist
  • pragmatic
  • transformative
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9
Q

What do positivists believe?

A
  • one reality
  • causes determine effects of outcomes
  • reductionist
  • theory verification
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10
Q

What do constructivists believe?

A
  • theory generation
  • no single reality- how individuals interpret experiences
  • inductive
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11
Q

What do pragmatic believe?

A
  • caused by actions, consequences and situations;

- mixed methods

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12
Q

What is the transformative viewpoint?

A
  • includes critical theorists & participatory action researchers
  • change orientated -research focused with policy & political change to confront social oppression
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13
Q

Order within triangle of evidence (starting from top)

A 
Systemic review (meta analysis)
Randomised controlled trials
Controlled clinical study
Retrospective / prospective cohort
Case report
Expert opinion
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14
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A prediction about a specific event or relationship between variables

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15
Q

What is a null hypothesis

A

No relationship between the variables (Ho)

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16
Q

What is an alternative hypothesis

A

Makes a a prediction that there is a difference between the variables (H1)

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17
Q

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

A

Stating there is a difference but not the direction of the difference

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18
Q

What is deductive reasoning?

A
  • starts with a hypothesis

- facts need to be correct to make logical conclusion

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19
Q

What is inductive reasoning?

A

Broad generalisations- conclusions made from false information

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20
Q

What is abductive reasoning ?

A

Bringing together certain information together to make most logical reason

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21
Q

Define temporal Order

A

One variable precedes another in time = one variable affects/predicts another variable

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22
Q

What is the independent variable

A

Variable you change

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23
Q

What is the dependent variable?

A

Variable you measure. Depends on independent variable

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24
Q

What is a predictor variable? (Antecedent)

A

Variable used to predict an outcome of interest

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25
Q

What is a outcome/criterion or response variable?

A

Outcome of predictor variable

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26
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

Additional variables having an affect e.g. age

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27
Q

What is extraneous variables?

A

Any variable other than the independent or dependent variable. They can have a negative effect on study

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28
Q

What is a mediating variable?

A

Used to explain relationship between independent & dependent variable

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29
Q

What is a moderator variable

A

Increases or decreases the direction/strength of the relationship between independent & dependent variable

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30
Q

What is a control variable?

A

Variable that is kept the same

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31
Q

What are the 3 types of design/approaches to research

A
  • quant
  • qual
  • mixed methods
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32
Q

What are the 3 parts of mixed methods?

A
  • explanatory sequential (quant to qual)
  • exploratory sequential (qual to quant)
  • convergent (quant & qual together)
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33
Q

Wha is reliability?

A

Consistency

Getting same results

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34
Q

What is validity?

A

Obtaining correct answer
Accuracy
Can be replicated

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35
Q

3 breaths of coverage

A
  • micro-level = provides explanations to small bits of time, space or numbers
  • meso-level = theories link micro & macro levels
  • macro level = explain larger groups e.g. social institutions
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36
Q

What is evidence based practice?

A

Interpreting individual clinical expertise with best available external evidence from systematic research

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37
Q

What are the key principles of qualitative methods?

A
  • understanding context
  • understanding people
  • understanding interaction
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38
Q

Quantification without qualification is….

A

Irrelevant

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39
Q

Qualification without quantification is…

A

Inaccurate

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40
Q

What are the 3 types of research dimensions?

A
  • experimental
  • quasi-experimental (manipulation present but NO randomisation
  • non-experimental
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41
Q

What are 4 research designs?

A
  • descriptive (documents conditions, attitudes or characteristics of individuals or groups
  • exploratory (focuses on relationships among these factors)
  • predictive (development of systems to predict criteria of interest)
  • explanatory (testing hypothesis & explaining phenomena)
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42
Q

What are the 4 research timeframes?

A
  • retrospective (past)
  • prospective (present)
  • longitudinal (over time)
  • cross-sectional (one point in time)
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43
Q

What are non traditional designs?

A
  • case studies
  • historical research
  • methodological research (development, testing, evaluation)
  • meta analysis for quant & meta-synthesis for qual
  • evaluation research e.g. how well policy is implemented & uselfull
  • needs assessment e.g. needs of group/organisation
  • action research (strategy brings about social change)
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44
Q

What are the 4 types of qualitative designs?

A
  • phenomenology (human experience)
  • ethnography (observe in natural habitat, social culture)
  • grounded theory (observation & interpretation of phenomena, construction of theory through analysis of data, analysed through coding)
  • philosophical enquiry (rational reflection upon experience, all about perspective & how you view it)
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45
Q

What are data collection methods for qual research?

A
  • observation
  • questionnaires
  • interviewing
  • focus groups
  • field notes
  • journal entries
  • photography
  • documents & records
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46
Q

What are the types of sampling?

A
  • convenience
  • quota
  • purposive/theoretical/judgemental
  • snowball
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47
Q

How do you know when you have a big enough sample size in qual research?

A

Data saturation

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48
Q

Types of data analysis for qual data?

A
  • narrative (subjective view)
  • descriptive (objective view)
  • thematic (groups/themes)
  • coding
  • graphic (visual representation)
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49
Q

What are some strengths of qual research?

A
  • data collected in naturalistic setting
  • useful for studying small sample to describe complex phenomena
  • can conduct cross case comparisons & analysis
  • useful in determining idiographic causation
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50
Q

Limitations of qual research?

A
  • might not be generalisable to other settings
  • difficult to make predictions
  • more difficult to test hypothesis
  • may have less credibility
  • data collection & analysis time consuming
  • results more easily influenced by researchers biases & idiosyncrasies
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51
Q

What are examples of probability sampling?

A
  • simple random e.g. names out a hat
  • systematic random e.g. every 3rd person
  • stratified random - same proportion of sample
  • random cluster
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52
Q

Examples of non-probability sampling

A
  • quota
  • purposive
  • volunteer (self selection & snowball)
  • Haphazard (convenience)
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53
Q

What are the 4 types of data?

A
  • nominal (data follows simple naming system to indicate commonality)
  • ordinal (data follows a rank order by their position on a scale)
  • interval (data had equal degree of difference between each position)
  • ratio (data can be compared as multiples of one another e.g. age)
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54
Q

What is parametric statistics?

A
  • normal or expected distribution
  • homogenous (looks same on both sides of curve)
  • independent
  • data type = interval or ratio
  • measured using mean
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55
Q

What in non-parametric statistics

A
  • unexpected or not a normal distribution
  • data = nominal or ordinal
  • measure = median
56
Q

What is level of significance?

A
  • expressed as numerical probability value (p)

- p value equates to the % likelihood that a result is due to chance

57
Q

What does p<0.05 mean?

A

Probability less than 5%

58
Q

What would the p value be if the probability was less than 1%?

A

P<0.01

59
Q

What does p<0.001 mean?

A

Probability is less than 0.1%

60
Q

What is a confidence interval (Cl)?

A

Range of scores within which the true parameter might exist e.g. 95%

61
Q

What is the relationship between the alpher & p value?

A

Alpha value - sets the significance bar
P value determines whether you will get over the bar or not

If alpha = 0.05
If P is < than alpha (less than 5% of what you observe is due to chance)
If P is > than alpha (more than 5% due to chance)

62
Q

What value is between 1 standard deviation of the mean?

A

68% of data

63
Q

How many standard deviations is 95% of data?

A

2 standard deviations from the mean

64
Q

How much of the data lies within 3SD of the mean?

A

99% confidence interval

65
Q

What % is the median of a non-parametric curve

A

50%

66
Q

What type of error is a false positive?

A

Type 1 error

67
Q

What type of error is a false negative?

A

Type 2 error

68
Q

What is the likelihood ratio?

A

Opposite of betting e.g. 1:1 = 50%, 1:4 = 80%

69
Q

How do you work out post test odds?

A

Pre test odds x likelihood ratio = post test odds

70
Q

How to calculate inter-rater reliability

A

Kappa = (Po -Pe)
———-
(I - Pe)

Po = observed proportion of agreement
Pe = proportion expected by chance

Used to determine observer bias

71
Q

What is external validity

A

Being able to generalise research to other settings

72
Q

What is internal validity?

A

Ability to draw link between treatment & dependent variable

73
Q

If null hypo is true but you reject null hypo what is it?

A

False positive

74
Q

If null hypo is false but you reject null hypo what is it?

A

True positive

75
Q

If null hypo is true but you fail to reject null hypo, what is it?

A

True negative

76
Q

If null hypo is false and you fail to reject null hypo, what is it?

A

False negative

77
Q

Give examples of biostatistical tests

A
  • chi square
  • t test
  • Mann- Whitney u test
  • wilcoxson signed-rank test
  • ANOVA (analysis of variance)
  • regression
  • correlation
  • kappa
78
Q

What is cluster randomisation?

A

Random sample from groups is selected

79
Q

What is sham controlled?

A

Sham surgery (placebo surgery) = fake surgical intervention that omits the step thought to be therapeutically necessary

80
Q

Which of these words might a quant study start with?

Do
Explore
Why
If
Understand
A

Do

81
Q

Is probability sampling random?

A

Yes

82
Q 
Which of these is NOT a type of probability sampling?
Cluster random
Simple random
Columnar random
System random
A

Columnar random

83
Q

Which is not a type of non-probability sampling?

  • indirect sampling
  • quota
  • snowball
  • purposive
  • convenience
A

Indirect

84
Q

True or false - surveys are useful for collecting retrospective data only

A

False

85
Q

True of false - construct validity explores the structure of the tool & uses cross-referencing of questions to determine participant honesty?

A

False

86
Q

True or false- content validity can be determined if one can review the tool & suggest what is being measured?

A

True

87
Q

True or false - external validity explores how the sample represents the parent population

A

True

88
Q

True or false? Criterion-related validity compares 2 different data collection instruments

A

True

89
Q

Reliability can be tested using Cohen’s kappa - what level and above is considered acceptable?

A

0.6

90
Q

Give an example of nominal measurement

A

Male/female

91
Q

What does a p value of 0.04 suggest after 2 groups were statistically compared?

A

There is a difference between the groups

92
Q

What concept is not a trustworthiness characteristic of qualitative research?

A

Correlation

93
Q

Which philosopher developed phenomenology?

A

Heidegger

94
Q

Can triangulation enhance truthfulness in a qual research?

A

Yes

95
Q

Should informed consent always be gained in qual research?

A

No, but where possible

96
Q

What are the 4 ways of knowing

A

Knowing-that (theoretical knowledge found in books & research journals that can be widely applied to different situations

Knowing-how ( practical knowledge gained from training sessions and also from past experiences)

Knowing-why (a deeper understanding of a situation that allows practitioners to work outside of standard procedures)

Knowing-who (personal knowledge of other people & ourselves that enables practitioners to apply general knowing-that & knowing-how to specific & unique cases

97
Q

What is intuitive knowing?

A

Knowing the right thing to do without fully realising how or why you know it

98
Q

What is hypothetico-deductivism?

A

Attempting to disprove a theory

99
Q

Key principles of clinical governance

A
  • pt & public involvement
  • risk management
  • clinical audit
  • staffing & staff management
  • education, training & continuing personal & professional judgement
  • clinical effectiveness & use of clinical information to inform practice
100
Q

What are the components of evidence based practice?

A
  • research
  • clinical expertise
  • pt preferences
  • resources
101
Q

Define snowball sampling

A

When participants recommend someone else to participate (nominated sampling)

102
Q

What is triangulation

A

Using different sources of data &/or different collection methods to look at same phenomenon but from different perspectives

103
Q

What is purposive sampling?

A

Selection of participants who are believed to be able to give rich, robust info about phenomenon being researched

104
Q

What is transferability?

A

Whether the findings are relevant to other settings or to other groups of people

105
Q

What is dependability?

A

Whether findings would be consistent if the study was carried out again with similar participants or similar setting

106
Q

What is confirmability?

A

If research findings can be tracked back to original data

107
Q

What is content validity?

A

When each item on questionnaire is examined for relevance

108
Q

What is criterion-related validity?

A

How well one measure predicts an outcome for another measure.

109
Q

What is construct validity?

A

Degree to which test measures what it claims to be measuring

110
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

Extent to which findings are applicable to participants natural social settings

111
Q

What is external reliability?

A

Consistency over time

112
Q

What is reliability coefficient

A

Indicates degree of reliability by describing strength of relationship between variables

113
Q

Give an example of interval measurement

A

Temperature

114
Q

Give an example of ordinal data

A

Average, Good, excellent

115
Q

Common tests for exploring categorical data?

A

Chi-square and fishers exact test

116
Q

Tests used to explore continuous data?

A

Mann-Whitney U
Kruskal-Wallis (non-parametric)
One & two tailed tests (parametric)

117
Q

What is the Hawthorne effect?

A

Changing behaviour because aware you’re being observed

118
Q

What is attention/interest thoughts?

A

Sentences with the purpose to keep the reader on track

119
Q

What is intercoder agreement?

A

When 2 or more coders agree on codes used for the same passages in the text

120
Q

What is nominal data?

A

Named data, which do NOT overlap in categories

121
Q

What is ordinal data?

A

Data is placed in order or scale

122
Q

What is ratio data?

A

Equal & definitive ratio between each data

Has an absolute zero as point of origin (can NOT be negative numerical value)

123
Q

What is interval data?

A

Data which is measure along a scale, with equal distance between each value.

124
Q

What is Mann-Whitney U test?

A

Non-parametric test

Compares differences between 2 independent groups when dependent variable is either ordinal or continuous

125
Q

What is a T-test?

A

Normal distribution

Test if there is a significant difference between the means of 2 groups

126
Q

What is chi square test?

A

Determine whether there is a significant difference between the expected frequencies & observed frequencies in one or more categories

127
Q

What is cohens kappa test?

A

Used to measure inter-rater reliability of qualitative items

128
Q

When would a 1 tailed test be used?

A

Directional hypothesis

129
Q

When would a 2 tailed test be used?

A

Non-directional hypothesis

130
Q

What is a single blinded procedure

A

When participants aren’t aware of study hypothesis

131
Q

What does a manipulation check measure?

A

Whether the study successfully manipulated the independent variable

132
Q

What is specificity?

A

Ability to identify people without disease

133
Q

What is sensitivity?

A

Ability to correctly identify those with a disease

134
Q

What is law of averages?

A

Outlier which inaccurately represents the data

135
Q

What are the 3 central tendencies?

A

Mean
Median
Mode

136
Q

Define standard deviation?

A

Measure of amount of variation of set of values from the mean

Research Methodology (1 decks)

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