Research Hypotheses - Week 1

Question 1

How Hypotheses (and experiments) are often created? - (2 answers)

Answer 1

1. Observation of a relationship
2. Thought of after reading about Previous research in the field.
   - the object is to Improve on the original research (e.g., better use of IVs & DVs etc).

Question 2

An Experiment must be a form that is… (3 answers).

Answer 2

1. Repeatable - ( the findings can be consistently emulated in Different locations and at different times).
2. Observable
3. Testable

(Observability and Testability relates to the ability to Quantitatively measure variables).

Question 3

Verbally formulating the research hypothesis… Statements (3 answers)

Answer 3

1. Synthetic
2. Analytic
3. Contradictory

Question 4

Synthetic Statement

Answer 4

True/False (good statement)

A Synthetic statement therefore allows the research hypothesis to be expressed in the “General Implication Form” - “If X then Y”.

Question 5

Analytic Statement

Answer 5

Always true (NOT good) 
‘I am OR am not going to do my homework’ .

Question 6

Contradictory Statement

Answer 6

Always False (NOT good). 
‘I am AND am not going to do my homework’.

Question 7

General Implication Form

Answer 7

‘if X then Y’

The general implication form is what you want in a research hypothesis.
So, Falsifiability is a characteristic of such a statement.

Question 8

Falsifiability

Answer 8

or Refutability is the capacity for a statement, theory or hypothesis to be contradicted by evidence.
And that is what you want. Theories that cannot be refuted are Pseudo-science, because there’s no way of proving them.

Question 9

Induction or Inductive Logic/Reasoning

Answer 9

The taking of Particular examples and creating a General, theoretical statement.
- P.I.G -
Through Induction the conclusion contains More information than has been determined from observation.

The relations between Induction and Deduction can and do interact with each other.

Observation (from one situation)
                        ⬇️
                 Induction
                        ⬇️
                  THEORY
                        ⬇️
                 Deduction 
                        ⬇️
Predicted observation (in another situation). 

So, if the theory is VALID, specific conclusions can be made in Different circumstances.

Question 10

Deduction or Deductive Logic/Reasoning

Answer 10

To test an Hypothesis = Deduction.
- General > Deduction > Particular.

Once the hypothesis has been derived through Induction, then it can be experimentally tested using Deduction.
That’s when you have a General case (the Hypothesis), and you test it with the prediction of a Particular outcome.

e.g., a deductive statement on the ‘Bystander Effect’ -
IF a person pretends to have a seizure on a subway, THEN that person will receive Less assistance when there are More bystanders present.

The relations between Deduction and Induction can and do interact with each other.

Observation (from one situation)
                        ⬇️
                  Induction
                        ⬇️
                  THEORY
                        ⬇️
                Deduction 
                        ⬇️
Predicted observation (in another situation). 

So, if the theory is VALID, specific conclusions can be made in Different circumstances.

Question 11

Types of Theories - (3 answers)

Answer 11

1. Descriptive -
   theories name ‘describe’ events. (Problem - don’t necessarily EXPLAIN WHY these events occur, or what causes them).
2. Analogical -
   attempt to explain a RELATIONSHIP using an example or Analogy from another field of science. (e.g., the ‘computer analogy of the brain’ is the most famous in psychology). (Problem - ultimately an explanatory Limit will have been reached - the human brain is very different to a modern computer).
3. Quantitative -
   explain a relationship using PRECISE VALUES and MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS. (not so common in psychology - behaviour more difficult to precisely quantify).

Most theories in psychology remain DESCRIPTIVE or ANALOGICAL.

Question 12

What makes a good (valid) theory?

Answer 12

• The theory should account for most of the data (contradicting data tends to disconfirm the theory).
• The theory should also be Testable (those that aren’t are sometimes called UNFALSIFIABLE, and are considered ‘pseudoscience’.
• UNFALSIFIABLE theories are theories NO AMOUNT of findings can ever DISCONFIRM.
• A theory should also make PREDICTIONS.

Question 13

The basis of Psychology

Answer 13

Is (simplistically) to determine REASONS behind human BEHAVIOUR - (the causes of behaviour).

Question 14

Science involves…

Answer 14

Establishing RELATIONSHIPS between an EVENT and a set of PRECEDING CIRCUMSTANCES.

• Science is not a thing, BUT A PROCESS.

Question 15

The ‘SCIENTIFIC’ method - (4 answers)

Answer 15

1. Objectivity - (not to let your Biases affect your Question or Findings).
2. Confirmation of Findings (e.g., replication) - (repeating a study should have the same outcome).
3. Self-Correction - (ability to alter conclusions) - if in contrast to what is expected.
4. Control - to make certain that your findings are the best they can be by controlling Extraneous Variables.

Question 16

The Experimental Method:

When we suspect a Relationship between events, we attempt to examine such a relationship by…

Answer 16

MANIPULATING the PRECEDING CIRCUMSTANCES, and OBSERVING the CHANGE in the FINAL EVENT.

Systematically examining all circumstances influencing, e.g., speed (friction, angle of slope, etc.) is the DISTINGUISHING FEATURE of the scientific method.

Often there are too many possible preceding circumstances, so in the experimental method we take ONE or FEW and concentrate on them.

Question 17

Independent Variables

Answer 17

Presumed ‘circumstances’ MANIPULATED to observe the EFFECT on BEHAVIOUR.

They are “Independent” of the BEHAVIOUR.

Question 18

Dependent Variables

Answer 18

Simplistically, in psychology…

This is the OUTCOME, EVENT, or BEHAVIOUR of the participant.

It is “dependent” on the state or level of the “independent” variable.

Question 19

Hypothesis

Answer 19

Is a statement/prediction of the relationship between the Dependent and Independent variable.

The basis of an experiment is that we are ONLY testing the RELATIONSHIP between the INDEPENDENT and DEPENDENT variable.

All other CIRCUMSTANCES are CONTROLLED.

Question 20

What makes psychology a ‘difficult’ science to practice? (2 - answers) relating to this Unit.

Answer 20

1. The many possible circumstances CONCURRENT TO, or PRECEDING a behaviour (lots of disciplines have these problems).
2. The DIFFERENCES INHERENT in an INDIVIDUAL (a form of “preceding circumstances” which mean no two people act in the same way).

Question 21

Sampling Error

Answer 21

A sampling error occurs when the sample used in the study is Not representative of the Whole population.
Sampling error is affected by a number of factors including SAMPLE SIZE, SAMPLE DESIGN, THE SAMPLING FRACTION and the VARIABILITY within the population.

This is why very often (but not always!) data is collected from MANY participants.