Research Designs

Question 1

Observe that somebody jogs (treatment) and notice the jogger is slim. Assume jogging caused slimness (but could have been skinny before jogging)

Answer 1

Pre-experimental designs

Question 2

1. Introduce spelling program in a class 2. Measure spelling ability afterwards. (No evidence that spelling ability improved because we have no prior measure.)

Answer 2

Pre-experimental designs

Question 3

From 1980-88 President Reagan increased US defense spending. Between 1989 - 1991, the USSR collapsed. So Reagan caused the collapse of the USSR

Answer 3

Pre-experimental designs

Question 4

Perversity

Answer 4

Claims that an attempted reform or policy will actually make the problem worse

Question 5

Example of perversity

Answer 5

Raising the minimum wage will only lead to more unemployment because businesses won’t be able to afford workers

Question 6

Jeopardy

Answer 6

Argues that implementing a reform will threaten an existing valuable achievement or system

Question 7

Example of jeopardy

Answer 7

If we introduce universal healthcare, it will destroy the quality of our current healthcare system

Question 8

Futility

Answer 8

Claims that a proposed change will not actually make a difference or will be ineffective

Question 9

Example of futility

Answer 9

No matter how many laws we pass, people will always find ways to break them.

Question 10

Imminent danger

Answer 10

We must act now or else things will get worse

Question 11

Example of synergy

Answer 11

As technology advances, social equality will naturally improve on its own

Question 12

Historic inevitability

Answer 12

Argues that social developments follow a fixed, predetermined course and cannot be altered by reforms

Question 13

Example of historic inevitability

Answer 13

Capitalism will always dominate because history shows that socialism inevitably fails

Question 14

Spurious Relationship

Answer 14

A false cause-and-effect claim based on correlation

Question 15

Example of spurious relationship

Answer 15

Crime has gone down since we introduced stricter immigration laws, so immigration must have been the cause of crime

Question 16

What is the difference between deterministic and probabilistic causation

Answer 16

Deterministic causation means X always leads to Y, while probabilistic causation means X increases the likelihood of Y.

Question 17

What are the three conditions for causality

Answer 17

(1) Correlation, (2) Time order (cause happens before effect), (3) Non-spuriousness (no third variable explaining the relationship).

Question 18

What is a tautological relationship

Answer 18

A circular argument where the dependent and independent variable are defined in a way that guarantees correlation

Question 19

What is an experimental research design

Answer 19

A study that randomly assigns participants to conditions to test causal relationships

Question 20

What is pre-experimental design

Answer 20

A study that measures participants before and after an intervention

Question 21

What is an atheoretical/descriptive case study

Answer 21

A case study used to generate new theories based on observations

Question 22

What is a disciplined interpretive case study

Answer 22

A case study used to test an existing theory

Question 23

What is a least likely case study

Answer 23

A study of a case that is unlikely to support a theory, but if it does, the theory is strengthened

Question 24

What is a most likely case study

Answer 24

A study of a case that strongly supports a theory, reinforcing its validity

Question 25

What is a deviant case study

Answer 25

A study of an unusual or unexpected case that does not fit existing theories.

Question 26

What is a major threat to inference in pre-test/post-test designs

Answer 26

History effects and testing effects

Question 27

What is a major threat to inference in observational research designs

Answer 27

Confounding variables and reverse causation

Question 28

What is a major threat to inference in cross-sectional studies

Answer 28

Lack of temporal order

Question 29

What is a major threat to inference in longitudinal studies

Answer 29

Attrition (dropout bias) and time-related confounders

Question 30

What is a major threat to inference in case studies

Answer 30

Limited generalizability and researcher bias

Question 31

What are the key characteristics of an atheoretical/descriptive case study

Answer 31

Focuses on detailed observation of a case No pre-existing theoretical framework Used to generate new theories

Question 32

What are the key characteristics of a disciplined interpretive case study

Answer 32

Used to test an existing theory Uses a structured framework for analysis Seeks to confirm or refine theory

Question 33

What are the key characteristics of a least likely case study

Answer 33

Tests a theory in a situation where it is least expected to hold If the theory works in this case, it is strongly supported High-risk test for theories

Question 34

What are the key characteristics of a most likely case study

Answer 34

Tests a theory in a case where it should work If the theory fails here, it is seriously weakened Low-risk test for theories

Question 35

What are the key characteristics of a deviant case study

Answer 35

Examines a case that contradicts existing theories Helps refine theories by explaining anomalies Can reveal new causal mechanisms

Question 36

What is the tradeoff between type 1 and type 2 errors?

Answer 36

As we reduce type 1 error (decreasing p-value), we increase type 2 error possibility

Question 37

How do we reduce type 2 error?

Answer 37

Increase sample size