Research and Method Exam 1 Flashcards
Before the advent of computer programs for qualitative analysis, what was mainly used to manage qualitative data?
conceptual files have printed paper with codes in the margin
What is open coding
the capture of what is going on in the data such as actual words.
What are the criteria for enhancing trustworthiness in qualitative inquiry
credibility dependability transferability authenticity confirmability
What is Credibility ?
Confidence in the truth value of the findings
What is Dependability?
stability or reliability of data over time and conditions
What is confirmability
The objectivity of the data data is congruence between 2 or more independent people
What is transferability
Findings can be transferred or applicable in other settings
What is authenticity
Researchers fairly and faithfully show a range of realities
What are methods of enhancing credibility
- prolonged engagement
- persistent observation
- reflexivity
- triangulation methods
- member checking
- search for disconfirming evidence
- researcher credibility
- Peer debriefing
When a researcher brings an independent person not an expert at the study ( unbiased ) with other members of the study to look at the data or your overall research is What ?
Peer debriefing
What brings confirmability to the data? What are the the two trails?
- Audit trails: provides in-depth steps on how they collect the data , what was the coding process
- Inquiry audits: having a researcher outside of the data collection and data analysis examine the processes of data collection, data analysis, and the results of the research study
What is a strategy for enhancing quality during the coding and analysis of qualitative data?
Investigator triangulation 2 or more people focus on analyzing and interpreting the code
When collecting on the same phenomenon in multiple times ? What type of triangulation
Time
What triangulation used different data source to validate their conclusion ?
Data
What triangulation collects data in multiple different settings ?
Space
What triangulation collects data from different people
People
What triangulation used different methods of collecting data
Method
There is widespread agreement that qualitative researchers need to devote time and energy to analyzing and documenting their presuppositions, biases, and ongoing emotions. This represents a commitment to:
Reflexivity
In order to make meaning of their qualitative data, researchers interpret, analyze, and then live with their data. What is this process called?
Incubation : process of living with the data
During a qualitative study the researcher returned to three study participants to have them verify their data and the emerging themes. This is called:
member checking
What are the methods of enhancing dependability ?
- Replicate the findings
- Team coding : make sure more than one person code
What are the methods of enhancing transferability?
Thick and rich description
What methods would enhance authencity?
Convey the feeling tone of participants
develop heightened sensitivity of the issue and individuals being depicted
True or False It is typically appropriate to have a hypothesis for a qualitative study.
False
Many qualitative studies can be described as
Inductive
What does grounded theory analysis use
Constant comparison
What is the first stage of constant comparison
Open coding
Describe the three levels of open coding
Level 1 ( invivo) : get the participants exact words
Level 2: it becomes broader
Level 3: becomes the most abstract
What is a pattern of behavior that is relevant for participants
The main theme
Core category
What is BSP
it is based on core category when one core variable that evolves into 2 or more
Theoretical coding
broken pieces come together participants experience resolving a problem
In which specific level of ethnographic data analysis are cultural themes uncovered?
Theme analysis
In which specific level of ethnographic data analysis focus on the units of cultural knowledge find meanings of symbols or terms
Domain
In which specific level of ethnographic data analysis focus on organizing domains
Taxanomic analysis
In which specific level of ethnographic data analysis finds data similarities and differences among cultural terms in domain
Componential analysis
When does ethnographic data analysis typically begin?
The moment the researcher sets foot in the field.
Qualitative research makes the assumption that:
Multiple realities exist
Quasi-statistics are sometimes used in qualitative research to:
tabulate frequency of themes or insights in the data.
What is the count of times a theme has appeared
Content Analysis
How are most qualitative data are reported as
Themes : meaning patterns in data
What are description data analysis
use of participants words and action
What are interpretation of data analysis
focus on broader meaning and search for underlying ideas
What is dwelling
they spent alot of time with the data
How is data management ?
Reductionist approach data smaller, manageable pieces ( codes )
What is data Analysis? Constructivist
grouping codes into categories , identify relationships , exploring themes
What is Grounded theory - You would not see themes instead core categories
- it is discussing the process of social behavior
Ex: how parents go through the process of an ill child
How someone go through grief
What are codes that develop into categories
Secondary coding
What are the 2 different ethnographic perspective ?
etic : outsider view
emic: insider view ( M FOR ME)
What is snowballing sampling
one person recruit another person
Who typically does each of the following, the researcher or the participant? Think-aloud method? Field notes? Diary? Audit trail?
Think -aloud method : Participants
Filed notes : Researchers
Diary : Participants
Audit trail : Researchers
In participant observation what are the roles of the observer?
Participant observation participate in functioning of the social group under investigation and strive to observe info that is important to group members
What is a focus group?
a group of people assembled for a discussion interviewer moderate the discussion
What is a semi-structured interview?
Researchers prepare a written topic guide list areas they want to ask questions about
What is log or field diary
a diary record of events and conversations in the field how the researcher spent time with the participants
What are the field notes
the observer’s effort to record data and synthesisze and understand the data exact things they said to the participants nd their answers including nonverbal behaviors
Thick Descriptions is the goal
Qualitative studies often use an emergent design. When does the research design evolve?
In the field while collecting and analyzing data.
Data saturation is sampling to the point at which
no new information is obtained and redundancy is achieved.
What type of qualitative self-report data is being used when respondents record and maintain ongoing records about some aspect of their lives?
Diaries
What type of qualitative self-report data is being used when respondents record and maintain ongoing records about some aspect of their lives?
Grounded theory
What are the major ways in which unstructured observational data are most commonly recorded?
Logs : daily record of events in the field
or field notes : more indepth of conversation and observation of the participant
In what type of interview are detailed chronological narratives about personal life experiences most likely to be elicited?
Life history interviews
What interview involves real time data of people solves problem or make decision
think -aloud
What is critical incidents technique
gathering in-depth information about specific incidents experienced by participants
What are oral histories
historical researchers gather personal recollection about events or issues
What type of researcher often uses key informants who serve as guides and interpreters of the culture?
Ethnographers
What are windshield surveys
interview exploring the community such as churches public transportation
TRUE or False Field notes are both descriptive and reflective
True
What is the difference between descriptive vs reflective notes
Descriptive: objective descriptions of observed events like actions and dialogue
Reflective: researcher’s personal experience
Reflexivity is an important concept in qualitative data collection. What is reflexivity?
Awareness of the part the researcher plays in the study and the effect they have on data
Phenomenologists typically sample around _______ individuals meet the criterion of having lived the experience under study?
11 -15
What type of sampling is when a study is based on the experiences of people with frequent nightmares, might recruit sample members by placing a notice on a bulletin board or on Internet sites requesting people with frequent nightmares to contact us
Convenience Sampling Volunteer people deciding move forward participate
What is snowballing sampling
When participants from the study end up referring other people to join the study
Qualitative researchers often begin with a sample where potential participants come forward and identify themselves. What type of sample is this?
Convenience
What do ethnographers strive to acquire?
Emic perspective of a culture
Many qualitative studies eventually evolve to selecting cases that will most benefit the study. When this happens, what type of sample is being used?
Purposive
What type of sample involves selecting cases that are especially important or illustrative?
Critical case sampling
What are key informants
individuals who are highly knowledgeable about the culture and develop ongoing relationship
maximum variation sampling
a sampling approach used by qualitative researchers involving the purposeful selection of cases with a wide range of variation
With diverse backgrounds men and women poor vs affluent people
homogeneous sampling
a purposive sampling approach used by qualitative researchers involving the deliberate selection of cases with limited variation
Focus a particular group black gay men
involves selecting cases that illustrate or highlight what is typical, average, normal, or representative. can help the researcher understand hey aspects of a phenomenon as they are manifested under ordinary cirucmstances
Typical case sampling
approaches maximum variation sampling, but is typically done along a single dimension (e.g., income or illness severity). in the approach, each “stratum” would comprise a fairly homogeneous sample
stratified purposive sample
a sampling approach used by qualitative researchers that involves the purposeful selection of the most extreme or unusual cases
extreme (deviant) case sampling (outlier sampling)
a sampling approach used by qualitative researchers involving the purposeful selection of intense (but not extreme) cases
intensity sampling
a variant of purposive sampling used in qualitative studies that involves selecting cases based on a recommendation of an expert or key informant
reputational sampling
a purposive sampling approach used by qualitative researchers that involves selecting cases that meet a predetermined criterion of importance
criterion sampling
an approach to sampling in a case study that involves identifying and gaining access to a case representing a phenomenon that was previously in accessible to research scrutiny
revelatory case sampling
used to select or search for politically sensitive cases (or sites) for analysis
sampling of politically important cases
an approach to sampling in qualitative studies that involves adding new cases based on changes in research circumstances or in response to new leads that develop in the field
opportunistic sampling (emergent sampling)
a rich and thorough description of the research context in a qualitative study
Thick description
Thick description support what
Transferability
one of the three models of generalization that concerns researchers’ efforts to generalize from particulars to broader conceptualizations and theories
Analytic generalization
Researchers working within which of the following qualitative traditions is most likely to bracket?
Descriptive phenomenology
A researcher wishes to conduct a study with the intention of answering questions about the causes and effects of past events to illuminate present behaviors. Which research tradition would be best suited for this?
Historical
What does an “emergent” design indicate?
is a reflection of the researcher’s desire to have an inquiry based on participant’s realities and viewpoints
Provide an example of a lived experience.
Living through Covid-19
Differentiate descriptive from interpretive phenomenology.
Interpretive : understanding the human experience What is being ?
Descriptive : description of human exprience What do we know as humans?
Process of identifying and holding abeyance preconceived beliefs and opinions about phenomenon under study
Bracketing
Describe an emic and etic perspective
Emic: way members view their culture the insider’s view
Etic: outsiders interpretation of the experience of the culture
Most strive for emic point of view
Ethnographers commonly do
Participation observation : observing while participating or engaging to the culture
What is Phenomenology
understanding people’s every day life experiences
What is intuiting ?
descriptive phenomenology second step researchers remain open minded to the meanings attributed to the phenomenology by people who lived the experience
What is a basic social process? Provide an example.
Part of a core variable how people resolve a concern or problem
EX:
How many participants for grounded theory
20
a qualitative research methodology that involves researchers and participants collaborating to understand social issues and take actions to bring about social change.
Participatory Action theory
a type of social theory oriented toward evaluating and changing society as a whole
Critical theory
the manner how people resolve concern
Core variable
In-depth investigation of a single entity which could be an family , community
Case Studies
Focus on story as the object of inquiry to examine how individuals make sense of events in their lives
Narrative analysis
What is the Nuremberg Code and Declaration of Helsinki
developed after Nazi crimes were made public in the Nuremberg trials there were international efforts to establish an ethical code
Declaration of Helsinki : international ethical codes regarding human experimentation in 1964 by world medical association
The belmont report
3 broad principles Justice, Respect human dignity , and justice
Research focus on maximize the benefit and minimize harm should produce benefit for the human is called
Beneficence
What principle is for the right to self determination and right of self disclosure
respect of human dignity
the participant has a right to voluntarily decide on whether to take part in a study without risk of prejudicial treatment
Self -determination humans should be treated as autonomous agent
What is coercion
threats of penalty for failing to participate in a study or excessive rewards for agreeing to participate
In response to human rights violations, various codes of ethics have been developed. What was developed after Nazi atrocities were made public as an international effort to establish ethical standards?
Nuremberg Code
This document serves as the basis for regulations affecting research by the U.S. government?
Belmont report
Which ethical principle is likely violated if a team of researchers uses their own employees as subjects in a study about the qualities of excellent leaders?
Right to self-determination
This is an example of what when a generous monetary incentives were offered to disadvantaged groups to join a study
coercion
What are two parts of informed consent
full disclosure
right self -determination
what is full disclosure
researcher described the study fully, right to refuse participation at any time, tell them the risks and benefits
The _________ provides potential research participants with adequate information needed to make a reasoned decision about participation or non-participation in a study?
informed consent
Covert data collection
collection of data without participant knowledge or consent is often done if the privacy is not violated risks are minimal
deliberately withholding information or providing false information is ?
In
deception
In a study of high schoolers use of drugs we might describe the research as a study of students health practices ? which is what
Deception
Right to fair treatment and right to privacy
Justice
Under HIPAA regulations, a covered entity such as a hospital can disclose individually identifiable health information from its records if the patient signs an authorization granting access. What does this authorization include?
Who will receive the information
In qualitative studies, often multiple contacts occur between the researcher and study participants. During these contacts the researcher and participants collaborate and renegotiate continued participation. This ongoing negotiation is called:
Process consent
When does written consent is not needed ?
- study does not involve intervention
- data collect anonymously
- when existing data from records without linkage identifying information
The safeguard mechanism by which even the researcher cannot link the participant with the information provided is called:
Anonymity
When a researcher is using existing data from records and/or specimens, informed consent can be omitted when:
The researcher is gathering de-identified data.
Confidentiality
information from he participant will not be reported in a manner identifying the participant or not accessible to others
What is a certificate that allows researchers to refuse to disclose identifying information on study participants in any civil criminal administrative or legislative proceedings
Certificate of Confidemtiality
What are vulnerable group
incapable of giving full consent cognitive impaired
Who is an example of a vulnerable group?
People with schizophrenia attending their inpatient bi-weekly group session.
What is debriefing
when the researchers talk to participants after the study so they can get the chance to ask questions or answer complaints
What is assent
children informed consent tell them what you are doing and ask if it is ok
Most institutions where research is conducted have formal committees for reviewing proposed research plans. In the United States this committee would likely be called an institutional
Institutional review board canda is Research Ethics Board
What makes up the IRB
5 member
one, not a researcher
one not part of the institution
Which of the following is true of an expedited review?
Research involving no more than minimal risk can use this procedure.
What are privacy boards
in hospitals follows HIpaa, reviews authorization forms and waivers
What is data safety monitoring board
safety of the participants in clinical trials under NIH
making up data or results
Fabrication
manipulating research materials, equipment, processes changing or omitting data or results
Falsification
appropriation of someones ideas , results, or words without giving due credit
Plagiarism
In a well-specified PICOT question, the “I” stands for the:
Intervention
What does the statement “patients receiving antiemetic therapy by a patient controlled pump will be less nauseous than patients receiving a nurse administered antiemetic therapy” represent? A:
hypothesis
In a well-specified PICOT question, the “O” stands for:
outcome
A study
when researchers address a problem
the person who is getting studied
quantitative: subjects
qualitative : informants
Participants
The person directing the study is the
principal investigator
Independent variable
The cause
Dependent Variable
The effect ( Outcome)
The statement of the researcher’s expectations or predictions about relationships among study variables is called the
hypothesis
A ____ is the overall plan for answering a quantitative study’s research question.
Research design
What is a conceptual definition
the abstract or theoretical meaning of concepts under study
Ex: Caring how does that being defined
Operationalized definition
How the concept would be measured Anxiety would be measured through a questionnaire or symptoms
What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative data
Quantitative: numeric forms
Qualitative: narrative descriptions
In which pair of variables is there most likely to be a relationship that could be described as causal? Cause and effect relationship
Degree of physical activity and heart rate
Functional ( associative ) Relationship
There is no cause but there is a relationship
Pulmonary artery and tympanic readings have the same reading
What is literature review
provides the foundation on which to base new evidence and usually is conducted before data are collected
A proposal
researchers seeks financial support submit a proposal
True or false Quantitative data is raw
False its Qualitative data
What is IMRAD format
Abstract: a brief description of the study placed at the beginning of the article
250 words or less
Introduction: introduce the research problem and its context central phemona
Method: what was the design of the research study procedures
Result: presents the findings of the study
Discussion: researchers draw conclusions about the what the results mean and how the evidence can be used in practice
What does statistically significant
the findings are probably reliable and replicable with a new sample
Level of significance
Alpha level
Normally set to .05, which means that we may reject the null hypothesis only if the observed data are so unusual that they would have occurred by chance at most 5 percent at a time. The smaller the alpha, the more stringent the standard is.
What type of hypothesis is, “a person’s emotional status is not affected by relocation to a nursing home”?
null hypothesis
Purpose statement
summarize the goal of the study
what type of hypothesis is this ? A nurse might notice that pre-surgeries patients who ask alot of questions about pain have a more difficult time than other patients in learning postoperative procedures
inductive hypothesis : are based on observations
What is deductive hypothesis ?
have theories or prior knowledge as a starting point
This is an example of what ?
The older the patient , the greater risk that he or she will fall
directional hypothesis has direction of the relationship
What type of hypothesis is represented by the statement “the fewer social supports an elderly person has, the more likely the individual will be institutionalized”?
Directional
Which of the following best describes a nondirectional hypothesis? It is the:
anticipated existence of relationships but not their direction.
There is a relationship between the age of a patient and the risk of falling ? What is the example?
Nondirectional hypothesis
A complex hypothesis predicts the:
relationship between two or more independent variables and/or two or more dependent variables.
In which of the following is a nurse likely to have difficulty getting an idea for a research problem?
Nursing code of ethics
A moderator variable:
affects the strength or direction of a relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Which of the following is a required characteristic of a fully developed research question? It:
is grounded in a body of theory.
What are construct
an abstraction inferred from situations or behaviors but often one that is deliberately invented or construct
what is self-care an example of
construct
in critical care patients with central venous
catheters, the use of chlorhexidine cloths for
bathing is more effective than soap and water at
reducing the incidence of central line-associated
bloodstream infections over a 3-month period.” what type of hypothesis
directional and simple
What are descriptive observations
tend to be broad and helps the observer figure out what is going on
What is focused observation
carefully selected events and interaction focus on key aspects of the setting
What is selective observation
highly focused and selective undertaken to be compared between concepts
What is single positioning
staying in a single location for a period to observe behaviors and transactions in that location
What is multiple positioning Mobile positioning
involves moving around the site to observe behaviors
-follows the person throughout the period
