research Flashcards
Basic research components
Research question Hypothesis Variables Research design Quantitative Qualitative Experimental variables relational
Sampling
A means of identifying and selecting a portion of the total population. it mirrors proportionately the characteristics that are present in the larger population.
Random sampling
everyone has an equal chance of being selected
Systemic sampling
choosing every #th person on a list (Best & Kahn, 2006)
primary source
s the direct account of an event not an interpretation or explanation and often includes detailed methodology and findings.
Guidelines for Conducting a Literature Review
Create an outline and process goals to guide work for the project.
Process goals are objectives needed to accomplish a task.
Break the assignment into manageable pieces.
Work on one task at a time.
variable
any trait, attribute, or characteristic that varies. It can vary within each person over time or be constant within a person but vary across individuals
quantitative variable
numerical
Qualitative variable
categorical
independent variable
is the variable the experimenter changes or controls and is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.
dependent variable
is the variable being tested and measured in an experiment, and is ‘dependent’ on the independent variable.
generalizable
For findings to be applicable to the target population it must be representative.
instrument
The mechanism used to collect data
instrumentation
The process of data collection from instrument selection to instrument administration
Criterion Variables
the outcome variable being studied
Predictor Variables
used to estimate the criterion
Predictive Designs
Predictive designs are a form of correlational research that use calculated information about the relationships between variables to forecast future outcomes.
Correlation
a statistical technique used to determine the degree of relationship between two or more variables.
covariance
the degree to which two variables vary together.
fixed factor
an I V whose value will not be generalized beyond the experiment
random factor
an I V whose values will be generalized beyond the experiment.
Pre-experimental
no random assignment and no comparison group
Quasi-experimental
– no random assignment but a comparison group is used
True experimental
both random assignment and a comparison group
Random assignment
is equal likelihood that a participant will be assigned to a treatment, control, or comparison group.
Helps insure experimental validity.
Protects against selection bias.
Protects the influence of extraneous variables that are not being studied but could effect outcomes.
Between Groups Model
the effect of the I V on the D V is based on the examination of group differences.
In a true experimental design, one group receives a treatment or intervention (treatment group) and the comparison group (control group) typically experiences no treatment.
Post-Test Only Model
Participants are randomly assigned to a treatment group and a comparison/control group.
The treatment group receives an intervention and the control group does not.
A quantitative measure is used to determine the effect of the intervention.
The design is easy to implement.
Random assignment is important to ensure equality between groups at onset of the study.
Caveat is that without a pretest at the onset of the study the researcher cannot be certain that scores are attributed to the I V.
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Model
Participants are randomly assigned to a treatment group and a control group.
A quantitative measure is used to determine the effect of the intervention. Both groups receive a pretest then the treatment group receives an intervention.
A posttest is administered to both groups and the researcher can examine the degree of effect of the intervention.
There is assurance of equality at the onset of the study between the treatment group and the control group.
The design is susceptible to testing effects.
Participants exposed to a pretest may have an idea of how to answer on the posttest to appear they made or lack progress.
Solomon Four Group
Participants are randomly assigned to one of four groups:
Treatment group with pretest and posttest
Treatment group with posttest only
Control group with pretest and posttest
Control group with posttest onl
Both treatment groups receive an intervention and both control groups receive none.
Experimental Validity
Internal validity
external validity
Internal validity
the extent to which the independent variable(s) truly effect change in the dependent variable.
External validity
the extent to which the study can be generalized to other settings and populations.
Threats to Experimental Validity
Any variable that is not controlled for that can effect the outcome threatens internal validity.
It is impossible to control for every extraneous variable but true experimental designs minimize the effects of extraneous variables.
Threats to Internal Validity
Maturation History Testing Instrumentation Statistical Regression Selection Bias Interaction of Selection and Maturation Mortality Experimenter Bias
Threats to External Validity
Interference of Prior Treatment Artificial Experimental Setting Interaction Effect of Testing and Treatment Interaction of Selection and Treatment Interaction of Treatment Implementation
Nominal measurement
Gender Ethnicity Marital Status Religion Identity
Ordinal measurement
The rank
order of
anything
Interval measurement
Identity
Magnitude
Equal interval
Ratio measurement
Identity
Magnitude
Equal Interval
True Zero
Reliability
refers to the extent to which assessments are consistent.
Validity
is the extent to which a test measures the construct it is intended to measure
Test-Retest Reliability
: Reliability coefficient is obtained by administering the same test twice and correlating the scores.
Parallel Form Reliability
reliability coefficient is obtained by administering similar, but not identical tests and correlating the scores.
Internal Consistency
Reliability score is obtained by correlating the individual items of a test to each other
Three Major Approaches to Validity
Content: the extent to which the measurement adequately samples the content domain .
Construct: The extent to which the test is an accurate measure of a particular construct or variable.
Criterion: the extent to which a test is related to some external criterion of the construct being measured.
Mean
Most commonly used method of describing central tendency.
Arithmetic average of all scores.
Add up all of the values and divide by the number of values.
skewed by extreme results
Median
The midpoint of the ordered list of values.
List the values in rank order, then find the point below which one-half of the scores lie.
Mode
The easiest measure to understand since it is determined by inspection rather than computation.
Reports the most frequent score in the variable.
Useful when studying nominal variables.
Not often a useful indicator of central tendency in a distribution.
Variability
Refers to the extent to which the scores in a distribution differ from each other.
A distribution lacking variability is referred to as homogenous.
Distribution with much variability is referred to as heterogeneous.
Three frequently used measures of variability are the range, variance, and standard deviation
Variance
Represents how close the scores in the distribution are to the mean.
Variance is the average of the squared deviations from the mean.
Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is the square root of the variance.
Indicates the average difference between individual scores and the group mean.
Z Scores
if the mean and standard deviation are known, individual scores can be represented relative to the entire set of scores in the distribution through standardization
When you standardize a raw score to a Z score, it provides information about how far a person is from the mean.
One standard deviation above the mean has a Z-score of 1, one below = −1, and at the mean = 0.
T Scores
Standardized scores which are widely used to report performance on standardized tests and inventories.
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Stanines
Relating stanines to the normal curve, each stanine score represents a wide band of raw scores and percentile ranks.
Conducting Case Study Research
Establish the research question and propositions Identify the case(s) Prepare and collect the data Evaluate and analyze the data Report the findings
Grounded Theory
Grounded theory is a systematic qualitative methodology that emphasizes the generation of theory from data while conducting research.
A variety of data collection methods are the first step.
After the data are collected, key points are marked or coded by reviewing the data.
The coded data are grouped into related concepts and categories are formed which become the foundation for the creation of a theory to explain the subject under investigation
deductive
Theory is used deductively to test hypotheses or research questions generated from the theory.
inductive
Theory is used inductively by starting with a general area of interest, gathering data, asking questions, forming categories from the data, describing processes, and developing a theory or comparing what is discovered with existing theories.
Phenomenological Research
A method within the realm of qualitative research that focuses specifically on the subjective experiences of individuals.
Focuses on participants perceptions of their experiences and circumstances.
The purpose of the research is to observe the interaction and dialogue between person and world.
Phenomenology is interactive and relies on the relationship between the researcher and the participants.
The researcher invites the participant’s feedback and treats the participant as an expert of their own experience
Bracketing
an intentional process by the researcher to extract personal bias from the examination of the subject
Emergence of Narrative Research
Researchers looked for methodology that would give specific data about individuals, offer a systematic way of approaching data, and broaden the perspective beyond that of the therapist, a short coming of the commonly used case-study research report.
Narrative research provides specificity, complexity, and systematic data analysis, and utilizes the research interview as the main data collection instrument providing a window into cognitive processes of the individual (Bruner, J., 1986).
Variations of Narrative Inquiry
Biographies Life writing Personal accounts Personal narratives Narrative interviews Personal documents Documents of life Person-centered ethnographies Life stories and life histories Oral histories Ethnohistories Ethnobiographies Autoethnographies Ethnopsychologies Popular memories
Survey Research
Knowledgeable participants report on personal
experiences of interest to the researcher.
• Data is effective for exploring trends within populations,
describe relationships between variables or compare
groups.
Survey research falls under the general
category of descriptive research.
• The goal is to describe or explain a
participant’s opinions or preferences related
to a phenomenon.
random factor
an IV whose values will
be generalized beyond the experiment.
fixed factor
an IV whose value will not be
generalized beyond the experiment.
