Research Flashcards
Describe 3 sampling methods.
Sampling methods:
Opportunity sample - A sample of participants chosen out of convenience. This is often whoever is available at the time, meaning the sample may be bias, however this is the quickest and easiest sampling method.
Random sample - includes a range of participants. This means that everyone in the population has an equal chance of being chosen. Participants are often chosen using a random number software. This can be a time consuming method to use, however it ensures a representative sample is used.
Self-selecting sample - (volunteer sample) This method involves advertising an experiment and allowing volunteers to respond out of their own choice. An advantage of this is that the experiment is ethically sound as participants volunteer, however these participants may not be representative and the sample has a chance of becoming bias.
Systematic sample - A method which uses a system for selection e.g. Flicking through a phone book and selecting the person from the top of each page is systematic. This makes the sample unbias, however some members of the population may be excluded from selection making the sample unrepresentative.
Stratified sample - When the researcher makes sure key population groups are fairly accounted for in a sample e.g. Selecting a 50:50 mix of male and female participants. This makes the experiment more representative of the population in some aspects, however the sample may not be representative of all aspects of a population.
Quota sample - When the sample is representative of the population i.e. If there are more males than females, the proportions will be the same in the sample. This helps to ensure that no minority groups are left out
Describe the IV and DV
IV - (Independent variable) In an experiment the IV is the thing that the experimenter changes in order to promote a response in the DV
DV - (Dependant variable) This is the reaction to changes in the IV
State an ethical concern of using children in an experiment.
An ethical concern of using children in research is that they must be given consent by an adult. This is because they are not mature enough to give consent on their own.
Distinguish between experimental and non experimental research
Experimental research involves manipulation of the IV to provoke a response in the DV.
Non-experimental research does not involve the experimenter manipulating variables. Non-experimental methods often rely on correlations, surveys, case studies.
Describe three research methods
Field experiment - Experiments conducted in participants’ everyday ‘natural’ environment e.g. Workplace or home
Laboratory experiment - Experiments conducted in any controlled environment
Natural experiment - Experiments that are not controlled by the researcher in any way. Variables are still measured but they occur naturally
Evaluate laboratory experiments as a research method
Laboratory experiment evaluation:
Advantages
- Its easier to replicate lab experiments as a standardised procedure is used
- Its easier to establish a cause and effect relationship with results because the IV and DV are controlled
Disadvantages
- Lab experiment settings can be very artificial, this can produce unnatural behaviour, making results less ecologically valid
- The results may be impacted by demand characteristics, making participant behaviour less natural and thus making results less valid
What are extraneous variables?
Extraneous variables are variables, except the IV, that could affect results (DV) - The extraneous variables should be controlled where possible
What are confounding variables?
A confounding variable is a variable that affects the results of the experiment but has not been controlled
Describe demand characteristics
Demand characteristics are any clues in the experiment which could lead participants to think they know the purpose of the experiment
What is ecological validity?
Ecological validity is the degree to which an experiment replicates real life situations
i.e
An experiment which strongly reflects real life will have HIGH ecological validity
Evaluate a non-experimental method
Survey
Strengths
- Quick and easy to gather data
- Data can be analysed easily
Weaknesses
- Participants are not given the opportunity to express opinions other than those offered, making it more difficult to establish a valid cause and effect relationship
- Options given in surveys may be bias
- Participants cannot ask for further explanation increasing the risk of misunderstanding
Interview
Strengths
- Questions can be clearly explained, face-to-face, helps to prevent any confusion
- Interviews can be personalised to the participant, which can lead to rich detailed information
Weakness
- Social desirability bias can affect participants more as questions are asked face-to-face
- Interviews can be time-consuming and costly to carry out
- Data from open ended questions can be difficult to analyse
Observation
Strengths
- Detailed records of real-life behaviour are taken as it happens, this can make results more applicable to real life
- Behaviour is recorded in its true social context reducing the effect of environmental factors on behaviour
Weaknesses
- Lacks control making it more difficult to establish a cause and effect relationship
- It can be difficult to replicate an observational study as the situation is often unique
Case studies
Strengths
- Allows the researcher to focus fully on one specific instance meaning more attention is payed to the process and variables involved
- Case studies are a source of rich qualitative data
- Insights from participants may reveal unusual and highly relevant insights
Weaknesses
- Results are usually specific to the individual and impossible to replicate
- Case studies are very time consuming and expensive to carry out
- The close relationship between the participant/s and the experimenter can potentially interfere with objectivity
Describe three ethical issues a researcher should consider before carrying out a study
Consent - ensuring that participants have given their permission to take part in the study
Deception - ensuring that participants are not mislead in any way about the nature of the study
Briefing/debriefing - details of the study should be explained to participants before the study is carried out. Any details missed, or other relevant aspects should be explained after the study has been carried out
Harm - ensuring that anything with potential to cause psychological or physical damage during the study should be avoided
Children - when working with children (age 18yrs and under) written consent must be given by the child’s parent or guardian
Confidentiality - all participants have the right to confidence when taking part in a study. Any personal details must be kept secure and cannot be published with results
Withdrawal - all participants have the right to withdraw from the study at any time if they no longer wish to take part
Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data
Quantitative data is mostly numerical data whereas, qualitative data often often consists of verbal and descriptive data e.g. Videos
Describe the purpose of the mean, median and mode and explain how they are calculated
The purpose of the mean, median and mode is to calculate the ‘average’ in a data set
Mean - the mean is calculated by adding together all the numbers recorded in the data set and then dividing by the number of scores
Median - the median is the mid point of the data set when the data is ordered from lowest to highest score. If there is an even number of scores the median is calculated by working out the mean of the middle two scores
Mode - the mode is the most common score taken in the data set
What is a correlations study?
A correlational study is a study done with the aim of finding a relationship between two variables, rather than saying one variable will affect the other e.g. ‘The correlational hypothesis is that there will be a strong positive correlation between the number of hours sleep a student gets and their average grade’
What is the experimental design?
The experimental design is the way in which participants are arranged in the experiment
Describe the three types of experimental design
Repeated measures design:
When all participants take part in the exact same condition
Independent group design:
When participants are divided into groups and each group is given a different condition
Matched participant design:
When similar participants are chosen (e.g. Same age etc.) for each condition e.g. Two or more participants are the same age, each is allocated to a different condition
How would you calculate the range?
The range is used to summarise the data, it is calculated by subtracting the lowest value from the highest
What is a null hypothesis?
The null hypothesis is the hypothesis that the experimenter is trying to disprove. The null hypothesis states that there is no significance between the two variables in the hypothesis
Describe the second stage of the research process.
Stage 2 (Background Research):
- Carry out research on the topic of choice
- Collect relevant secondary data
- Analyse past experiments, reports, statistics in order to put your experiment in perspective and to ensure it hasn’t been done already
Describe the third stage of the research process.
Stage 3 (Hypothesis):
- Make a prediction or statement for the expected outcome of the experiment
- i.e. the affect the IV will have on the DV
- Hypothesis will then be either confirmed or rejected upon analysis of results
Describe the fourth stage of the research process.
Stage 4 (Operationalisation/Design):
- Plan how research will be conducted
- Consider the sampling methods and the type of experiment (laboratory or field)
- Consider how conditions will be allocated to participants
Describe the fifth stage of the research process.
Stage 5 (Conduct Research):
- Follow the research design
- Collect raw data by carrying out the experiment
- Data collected can be either quantitative or qualitative
Describe the sixth stage of the research process.
Stage 6 (Process/Analysis):
- Results are organised and analysed to develop conclusions about the research
- Experimenter may use various measures to do this e.g. measures of dispersion and measures of central tendency
- Hypothesis is confirmed or rejected
Describe the seventh stage of the research process.
Stage 7 (Evaluation/conclusion):
- Conclusions are drawn from the data that has been organised during the ‘process’ stage
- The research is evaluated and published
- The researcher may compare their own research to past studies
- From here a new research topic can be identified, taking the researcher back to stage 1 (identify topic)
Describe the first stage of the research process.
Stage 1 (Identify your topic):
- Choose area to study e.g. memory
- Choosing an area of interest is important in motivating the researcher to carry out the research
Evaluate field experiments as a research method.
Field experiment evaluation:
Advantages
- Behaviour is likely to reflect that of real life situations because of the experiments natural setting
- Demand characteristics are less likely to impact results as participants may not know they are being studied
Disadvantages
- Field experiments do not involve the same level of control as lab experiments, this can make it hard to establish a cause and effect relationship
- It can be difficult to replicate the study as there is less control over extraneous variables
Evaluate natural experiments as a research method.
Natural experiment evaluation:
Advantages
- The behaviour in a natural experiment is more likely to reflect real life because of the natural setting, giving the experiment high ecological validity
- Can be used for studies in which it would be ethically unacceptable to manipulate the IV
- Participants may not know they are being studied, therefor demand characteristics are less likely to impact results
Disadvantages
- Natural experiments can be very time consuming because the experimenter cannot choose when things happen in the experiment
- There is no control over extraneous variables, this can make it difficult to repeat the experiment and establish cause and effect relationship
Explain two representative sampling methods.
Representative sampling methods:
Random
- Target population is identified.
- Everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected.
- A random number software can be used to do this.
Systematic
- Target population is identified.
- People are picked at fixed intervals e.g. every 5th person from the population
Stratified
- Subsections of the target population are identified
- Each subsection is represented fairly within the sample, reflecting the proportions in the target population
Quota
- Subsections of the target population are identified
- Unlike stratified sampling, the sample does not reflect the proportions of the target population
- Researcher selects participants from key groups, helping to ensure representation of minorities
Why is it important to follow guidelines set by the BPS?
Importance of ethics:
- To endure the protection of experimenter and participants
- Ensures the psychological and physical safety of all participants
- Aims to safeguard against any form of distress e.g. the Milgram (63) and Asch (51) experiments
- The following rules ensure the safety and protection of participants:
- Deception
- Debriefing
- Withdrawal
- Confidentiality
Describe and evaluate opportunity sampling as a sampling method.
Opportunity sample:
- Participants chosen based on convenience
- Whoever is available, not necessarily representative
Strength
- Quick and easy to obtain
Weakness
- May be a biased sample; some groups may be under-represented
Describe and evaluate self-selecting sampling as a sampling method.
Self-selecting sample:
- Participants volunteer to participate in response to advertisement of the experiment
- Sample is unlikely to be representative
Strength
- Simple and ethically sound way of finding participants
Weaknesses
- Sample may be biased as a certain ‘type’ of people volunteer (usually more confident/outgoing etc)
- May be problematic if not enough people volunteer
