Research

Question 1

Non-experimental research

Answer 1

A “No experiement” design, usually includes two broad categories of research:
1.) Descriptive research
2.) Ex post facto/correlational research (in the past)
–Cross sectional
–Cohort
–Longitudinal

Question 2

Cross sectional study

Answer 2

An observational study done on a population at one point in time and it can help estimate prevelance.
Examines populations with similar attributes that differ in a specific variable (such as age), however the aim is to find relationships between variables at a specific point in time.
Designed to find relationships between variables at a specific point in time or “surveys.”

Question 3

Cohort study

Answer 3

Compares particular outcomes in groups of individuals who are alike in many respects but differ according to a particular characteristic.
Centered on determining whether a particular outcome will develop over time as a result of a key characteristic.
Can be retrospective or prospective

Question 4

Longitudinal study

Answer 4

Takes multiple measures of a group overtime to find relationships between variable.

Question 5

Descriptive research

Answer 5

Aims to describe situations, experiences, and phenomena as these values exist in nature.

Question 6

Instruments of measure

Answer 6

• Objectivity: The degree to which perceptive variability is eliminated from a unit of measure. No matter who does the measurement, it will be correct.
• Sensitivity: refers to the percentage of true positives correctly identified as a true positive.
• Validity: Measures the degree to which a variable measures what it is intended to measure.
• Reliability: The extend to which a measurement is repeatable under the same conditions.

Question 7

PICOT

Answer 7

A mneumonic derived from the elements of a clinical research question:
* Patient (population?)
* Intervention (Treatment?)
* Comparison (Control?)
* Outcome (results, effectiveness of what is being measured)
* Time (duration of the measure/data collection?)
Useful framework to answer a clinical based question

Question 8

Major steps in the research process

Answer 8

1.) Formulating the research problem
2.) Reviewing related literature
3.) Formulating the hypotheses
4.) Selecting the research design
5.) Identifying the population to be studied
6.) Specifying methods of data collection
7.) Designing the study
8.) Conducting the study
9.) Analyzing the data
10.) Interpreting the results
11.) Communicating the findings

Question 9

Ex post facto/correlational research (in the past)

Answer 9

Examines relationships among variables.

Question 10

Experimental research

Answer 10

A true research design that includes experimental manipulation of variables utilizing 1.) randomization and 2.) a control group to test the effects of an intervention of experiment.
Randomized control trials (RCTs), these are quantitative designs.

Question 11

Quasi experimental

Answer 11

An experimental research design that involves manipulation of variables but lacks a comparison group or randomization.
When you’re unable to randomize, or have control group.

Question 12

Qualitative research

Answer 12

Includes case studies, open ended questions, field studies, participant observation and ethnographic studies where observations and interview techniques are used to explore phenomena through detailed descriptions of people, events, situations, or observed behavior.
“The lived experience.”
Pros/cons:
-Research bias
-Small study participants can call into question the generalizability of findings.
-Produces very rich data through no means of research.

Question 13

Type 1 and 2 errors in reasearch

Answer 13

Type 1 error: False postitive +, incorrectly rejecting the true null hypothesis.
Type 2 error: False negative -, failing to reject a null hypthesis which is false.

Question 14

Meta-analysis vs Meta-synthesis

Answer 14

• Meta-analysis: Tests hypotheses by using numerous quantitative studies to systematically assess the results of previous research.
• Meta-synthesis: Analyzes data across qualitative studies in order to build new theories.

Question 15

Levels of evidence hierarchy

Answer 15

Ranked from top to bottom, pyramid.
1.) Meta-analysis of RCTs
2.) RCTs (quantitatie designs)
3.) Quasi-experimental (lack control or randomization)
4.) Qualitative cohort studies
5.) Case control studies
6.) Editorials/expert opinions

Question 16

Confidence interval

Answer 16

Measures the degree of certainty or uncertainty in a sampling method.
A small confidence interval implies a very precise range of values.

Question 17

Standard deviation

Answer 17

Indicated the average amount of deviation of values from the mean.
* 68% of the sample fall within in 1 SD of the mean
* 95% of the sample fall within 2 SD of the mean
* 99% of the sample fall within 3 SD of the mean
Low or small SD indicated data are clustered tightly around the mean
HIgh or large SD indicated data are more spread out.

Question 18

Level of significance

Answer 18

The probability that the results reported happened by chance.

Example: a p<.05 means that there is a 5% chance that the result is insignificant, or that it happened by chance alone.

Question 19

Perfect correlation

Answer 19

A measure of the interdependence of two random variables that ranges in value from +1 to -1
-1 indicates a perfect negative correlation
0 indicates an absence of correlation
+1 indicates a perfect positive correlation

Question 20

t- test:

Answer 20

Statistical test to evaluate the differendes in means between two groups.

Question 21

Reliability

Answer 21

The consistency of a measurement, or the degree to which an instrument measures the same way over time with the same subjects.
Think practice questions osn exams.
Reflect the estimated repeatability of a measurement
This is estimated in two ways:
–Test/retest: The more conservative method to estimate reliability. One should get the same score on exam 1 as one does on exam 2. Involves two administration of the measurement instrument.
–Internal consistency: Estimates reliability by grouping questions in a questionnaire that measure the same concept. Involves only one administration of the measured instrument.

Question 22

Cronbach’s alpha

Answer 22

A common way of computing correlation values among the questions on instruments.
As with a correlation coefficient, the closer it is to 1 (optimal >.7), the higher the reliability estimate of the instrument.

Question 23

Validity

Answer 23

The degree to which a variable measures what it is intended to measure overtime.