Reseach Methods - Unit 4 Flashcards
Theory
A suggested explanation for behavior
Aim
A general statement that explains the purpose of a study
Independent variable
The variable that the experimenter is deliberately changing - there are usually two levels of the IV
Dependent variable
What is measured by the researcher, the only thing that should affect the DV is the IV
Operationalisation
Making sure that variables are measurable, clear and precise
Testable hypothesis
A clear and precise testable statement
Alternative hypothesis
A statement of relationship or difference between variables
Null hypothesis
A statement of no relationship or difference between variables
Cause and effect
The only thing that should cause a change in the DV is the IV, if the DV does then change, the experimenter has established cause and effect
Extraneous variables
Unwanted variables that could affect the DV as if they are not controlled
Standardised instructions
Giving the participants exactly the same information about the study to ensure what Is said to them doesn’t act as an EV
Standardised procedures
Researcher used the same method and instructions for all participants in a research study
Lab experiment
An experiment conducted in a controlled environment
Give 4 evaluations of lab experiments
STRENGTH - Ev’s can be controlled which means that cause and affect can be established
STRENGTH - use of standardised. Procedure ensures replication is possible so it is possible to confirm the validity of results
WEAKNESS - Environment is unnatural to participants so they might act differently, results cant be generalised
WEAKNESS - participants may change their behaviour because they know that they are being tested
Field experiment
An experiment conducted in a natural setting experimenter manipulated the IV
Give 4 evaluations of field experiments
STRENGTH - often more realistic than lab experiments due to their natural environment which increases the validity of results
STRENGTH - there is some control over EV’s as standardised procedures can be used so cause and effect conclusions are more valid
WEAKNESS - researcher may lose control of some EVs becuase a real life setting makes it more difficult to control them
WEAKNESS - ethical issues to do with participants not knowing that they are bing studied, so cant give informed consent.
Natural experiment
An experiment conducted in a natural or lab setting where the experimenter has no control on the IV
Give 4 strengths and weaknesses of a natural experiment
STRENGTH - natural experiments usually have high validity. This is because the variables are naturally occurring and relate to everyday life.
STRENGTH - the DV is often tested in a lab. Therefore EVs can be well-controlled because standardised procedures can be followed.
WEAKNESS- there may be few opportunities for this kind of research. This is because it may focus on natural events that occur infrequently. This reduces the usefulness of the method.
WEAKNESS - there may be a greater amount of EVs that could affect the results. For example, unique characteristics of the participants cannot be controlled because they cannot be randomly assigned to groups.
Independent groups
Separate groups of people for each level of the IV.
There is usually a control group and an experimental group.
Give 2 evaluation points of independent groups design
STRENGTH - order effects are not a problem. The participants only do the task once. This means they won’t benefit from practice.
WEAKNESS - different participants in each group. This means that participant variables may affect the results and act as an EV. This reduces the validity of the results.
Repeated measures
All participants take part in all the conditions.
Give three evaluation points of Repeated measures design
STRENGTH - there are no participant variables. Each participant is compared against themselves rather than other people. This enhances the validity of the results.
STRENGTH- fewer participants are needed. In an independent groups design you need twice as many participants to get the same number of data items. This makes repeated measures less expensive.
WEAKNESS - A weakness is that order effects occur when participants are tested twice. The order in which they do the tasks may make a difference, e.g. a practice effect. This affects the validity of the results.
Matched pairs
Participants are tested in terms of variables relevant to the study, participants are then matched and one member of each pair goes in each group
Give three evaluation points for matched pairs design
STRENGTH - there are no order effects, enhancing validity
STRENGTH - There are fewer participant variables because those taking par are matched on a variable important to the experiment; this enhances the validity of the results
WEAKNESS - matching participants takes time and effort and still doesn’t control all participants so may not be worthwhile
Target population
The group of people the researcher is studying
Sample
A sample of participants chosen from the target population
Generalisation
The sample should be representative so we can generalise to the target population
Bias
It is difficult to select a group of participants that perfectly reflects the target population
Give 4 types of sampling
Random
Opportunity
Systematic
Stratified
Random sampling
Putting names of all members of the target population into a hat/computer programme so that every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.
Give two evaluation points of random sampling
STRENGTH - there is no bias. Every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected. This makes the sample more representative.
WEAKNESS - takes more time and effort than other methods. This is because you need to obtain a list of all the members of your target population and then randomly select them. The effort may not be worth it.
Opportunity sampling
Selecting the most readily available group of people.
Give the two evaluations of opportunity sampling
STRENGTH - it is easy, quick and cheap to carry out because you simply choose people who are nearby. This makes the method less expensive.
WEAKNESS - the sample is likely to be unrepresentative of the population. This is because the sample is drawn from one place. This reduces the generalisability of the results.
Systematic sampling
Selecting every nth person from a list of all the people in the target population.
Give two evaluations of systematic sampling
STRENGTH - it avoids researcher bias. The researcher has no say over who is selected. This makes it more representative.
WEAKNESS - it may still be biased. You might end up with a sample consisting of one particular group of people. This decreases the representativeness.
Stratified sampling
Selecting participants in proportion to their frequency in the target population.
Give two evaluation points of stratified sampling
STRENGTH - it is the most representative of all the sampling methods. The researcher ensures that all subgroups are represented in proportion to the numbers in the target population. This enhances representativeness.
WEAKNESS - it is very time-consuming. It may take a while to recruit participants and sort them into subgroups. This discourages researchers from using this method.
What are ethical issues in psychology
A conflict between participants rights and wellbeing and the need for researchers to obtain valuable results. The wellbeing should be protected at all times.
What are the 5 main potential ethical issues
Informed consent Deception Protection from harm Privacy Confidentiality
What is informed consent
At the start of a study participants should be given information about the purpose of the study.
They should be told they can leave at any time (right to withdraw) so an informed decision can be made.
If the researcher doesn’t reveal the aim at the start participants must be informed at the end.
What is deception
Participants should not be lied to or misled about the aims of the study.
Mild deception is justifiable. Major deception is used but this is only permitted if the benefits justify the action.
What is protection from harm
Participants’ physical and psychological safety should be protected at all times.
Stress and embarrassment is included in this.
Participants must be reminded they can leave at any time.
What is privacy
Participants have the right to control information about themselves.
It is acceptable to make observations of people in public places but a public place is also quite private.
What is confidentiality
Personal data should be protected and respected.
What are the BPS guidelines
A code of conduct that every professional psychologist in the UK has to follow so they can deal with ethical issues that crop up in their research
How do you deal with informed consent
Participants sign a form that tells them what is expected of them, if this is not possible at the start, they sign a form at the end of the study
How do you deal with deception and protection from harm?
Participants should be given a full debriefing at the end of the investigation to explain the true aims and reduce any distress they should be offered counselling and the chance to withdraw their data
How do you deal with privacy and confidentiality
All participants should be anonymous, they can be referred to by a number of initials
What are interviews
Face to face real time contact between an interviewer and an interviewee, can take place; in person, over the phone, or over text.
What are the three types of interview?
Structured
Unstructured
Semi - structured
Structured interview
Interviewer reads out a list of prepared questions.
Can ask follow-up questions, but these are also prepared beforehand.
Semi structured interview
Some questions decided in advance.
Follow-up questions emerge from the answers.
Unstructured interview
Interviewer has a general aim, but few if any questions are prepared in advance.
New questions are created based on what the interviewee has said. A lot like a conversation.
Give 4 evaluation points of interviews
STRENGTH -interviews produce a lot of information. This is especially true of unstructured interviews. This means that unexpected results may occur.
STRENGTH -insight can be gained into a person’s thoughts and feelings. Observations only show what people do not how they think about their behaviour. This provides a different perspective.
WEAKNESS -data can be difficult to analyse. This is because of the breadth of information collected. This makes it hard to draw clear conclusions.
WEAKNESS - people may feel less comfortable giving personal information face-to-face. This is especially true if questions are on a sensitive topic. This may limit the amount of information collected.
Questionnaires
A prepared list of written questions which can be completed face to face or in writing, over the phone or on the internet
Give 4 evaluation points of questionnaires questions may be unclear or leading. This means that respondents may find it difficult to answer questions. Therefore participant’s responses may lack validity.
STRENGTH - the researcher can gather information from lots of people relatively quickly. This is because a questionnaire can be sent to many people. This makes generalisations easier to make.
STRENGTH - data produced tends to be easier to analyse than interviews. This is because closed questions are used which produce quantitative data. This makes it easier to draw conclusions.
WEAKNESS - respondents may not always answer questionnaires truthfully. This social desirability bias may affect the validity of their responses. This reduces the validity of the data collected.
WEAKNESS - questions may be unclear or leading. This means that respondents may find it difficult to answer questions. Therefore participant’s responses may lack validity.
Observational study
A reader her watches and listens to participants, and records data
Covert
participants are not aware their behaviour is being recorded.
Overt
participants are told in advance.
Naturalistic observation
recorded in a place where it would normally occur and nothing is changed in the environment.
Participant observation
researcher becomes part of the group s/he is studying.
Non- participant observation
researcher remains separate from the people s/he is studying.
Categories of behavior
The observer breaks the target behaviour into different categories of behaviour.
Each category should be observable and obvious so that it can be counted each time it occurs.
Flirting behaviours could be broken down
Inter observer reliability
Two observers should produce the same record of behaviour.
To establish interobserver reliability the researcher creates categories of behaviour, observers record the same sequence of behaviour, then they compare their data (correlate) and talk over differences.
If the categories are not similar the categories may need to be altered or rewritten.
Give 4 evaluation points of Observations
STRENGTH - greater validity. Unlike questionnaires/interviews observational data are based on what people do rather than what they say they do! This enhances the validity of the data.
STRENGTH - observational studies look at real-life behaviour. People may not be aware they are being observed. Therefore the data collected will have greater validity.
WEAKNESS - there may be ethical issues. You cannot always gain people’s consent when you are observing them in public places. This means that some observations should not be conducted.
WEAKNESS - observer bias. Observer’s expectations can influence what they see. Therefore the observations lack validity.
Scatter diagram
Diagram to display correlation. One co-variable on x-axis and the other on the y-axis. A dot is placed where the co-variables meet.
Frequency tables
Frequency tables are a systematic way to organise data in rows and columns.
Name 3 Frequency Diagrams
Histogram
Bar chart
Normal distribution
Histogram
Continuous categories, no spaces between bars
Bar chart
Bars can be in any order and have categories
Normal distribution
Symmetrical spread forms a bell shape with mean, median and mode
Case study
An in-depth investigation of an individual, group event or institution.
Give four evaluation points of Case studies
STRENGTH - Research lacks specific aims so researcher is more open-minded.
STRENGTH. - Best way of studying rare behaviours
WEAKNESS - Focus on one individual or event, so often cant be generalised
WEAKNESS - Subjective interpretation of events
Correlations
Correlations show how things are linked together, associations
Co- Variables
Correlations are quantitative- continuous numerical data
Positive correlations
As one co-variable increases, so does the other
Negative correlations
As one co-variable increases, the other decreases
Zero correlation
No relationship between the co-variables
Give four evaluation points for Correlations
STRENGTH - good starting point for research
STRENGTH - Can be used t investigate curvilinear relationships, so many uses
WEAKNESS - Don’t show cause and effect
WEAKNESS - NO control of EV’s, so conclusion drawn may be wrong
Qualitative data
Data as words or pictures
Quantitative data
Data as numbers or statistics
Primary data
Data obtained first hand by the researcher for the purposes of a research project
Secondary data
Second hand data from sources such as other studies or government statistics
Give 2 evaluation points of quantitative data
STRENGTH - quantitative data can be easy to analyse. Data can be converted to averages and then graphs and charts. This means that groups of people can easily be compared.
WEAKNESS - lacks depth and detail. This is because we obtain little information about thoughts or abilities. Therefore it doesn’t reflect how complex things are in the real-world.
Give two evaluation points of qualitative data
STRENGTH - it is in more depth and detail than quantitative data. The researcher can gain more insight as the participant is free to express their thoughts and feelings. This increases the validity of the data.
WEAKNESS - more difficult to analyse. It may be hard to summarise material and draw conclusions. This means conclusions may be based on the researcher’s opinion.
Give two evaluation point s of primary data
STRENGTH -it suits the aims of the research. It is authentic because it comes first hand from the participants themselves. This means the data may be more useful.
WEAKNESS - it takes more time and effort to collect primary data. The researcher must design and carry out a study rather than using readily available secondary data. This slows the process down and increases expense.
Give two evaluation points of secondary data
STRENGTH - it is easy and convenient to use. This is because it has already been checked and collected, unlike primary data. This reduces expense.
WEAKNESS - secondary data may not quite fit what the researcher wants. For example, the data may come from out-of-date or poorly designed studies. This may reduce the validity of the research.
