Reptiles Exam Flashcards

Question

What order are turtles in?

Answer 1

Order Testudines

Answer 2

Tetrapods Amniotes No teeth Three-chambered heart Have shells Ribs fused to shells Longitudinal cloacal slit

Answer 3

Order Testudines also sometimes called Chelonia (extant members only)

Answer 4

14 families and include marine turtles, freshwater turtles, and tortoises

Answer 5

A turtle is a morphological phenomenon A shell is… □ 35% of a turtle's mass □ Armor □ Skeleton for skin and muscle attachment □ A solar panel for warming □ A place to store nutrients Carapace - fusion of 8 vertebrae and ribs with overlying dermal bones Plastron - fusion of parts of the sternum and pectoral girdle with external dermal bones Bony bridge joins the carapace and plastron Soft, leathery or keratinized scutes Long-lived Slow to sexually mature High fecundity Low offspring survival High adult survival

Answer 6

Many first nations teaching, including those of the Anishinaabe and the Haudenosaunee people, use the back of a turtle's shell as a lunar calendar Depending on how we measure a lunar month, the moon goes around the earth in approximately 28 days

Answer 7

21% of reptiles are threatened with extinction Fewer than amphibians, more than birds, and comparable to mammals

Answer 8

We see especially large trends for climate change, logging, pollution, and invasive species Note: we are looking at global trends, but regional trends differ

Answer 9

Reptiles largely face similar threats to other tetrapods Good news, since reptiles are often ignored

Answer 10

Offspring chromosomes depend on the sex chromosomes that an embryo receives from its parents ~20% of turtles, most lizards, and all snakes GSD is probably the ancestral sauropod condition Some turtles and lizards: XX - female XY - male In snakes: ZZ - male ZW - female

Answer 11

>80% of turtles, some lizards, and 100% of crocodilians TSD evolved independently and lost independently many times!!! Evidence by the variety of temperature relationships we see

Answer 12

In these intermediate cases, the default is GSD, but temperature extremes can override the defaults, converting to TSD Sometimes leads to individuals genotypically male but reproductively female and vice versa

Answer 13

Nest placement is critical! For most reptiles and amphibians, the egg stage is the most vulnerable life stage Its a balance between appropriate biophysical environment and protection from predators The selection of a site for a clutch influences: Duration of incubation Developmental rate Hatching success Size of offspring Sex ratios (if TSD) Good site selection - high survivorship, balanced sex ratios; Poor site selection - low survivorship (even loss of clutch) and skewed ratios

Answer 14

Climate threats interacts with many aspects of reptile life history, including TSD On Australia's Rain Island, the biggest green turtle nesting ground in the Pacific, the ratio was 116 females to one male in a 2018 study led by Michael Jensen and Camryn Allen, scientists with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The study found that older turtles that had hatched 30 or 40 years earlier were mostly female, but only by a 6 to 1 ratio. Younger turtles, however, born during the last 20 years, were more than 99 percent female.

Answer 15

Queer ecology can be defined as a scientific theory that combines knowledge of queer theory and ecology in order to shift thinking from heteronormative, rigid ways of understanding the world towards the fluid, binary free, expansive reality of nature

Answer 16

Reducing bias that limits research potential Nonconforming data is erased due to the drive to reduce information to digestible data bits we can standardize Deepens understanding of wildlife (sexual selection, reproduction, behaviors, etc.) Encourages increased specificity of language Prevents assumption of non-binaries being anomalies Fuels creative solutions to complex ecological and social problems Promotes the value of indigenous knowledge Builds connection with nature as a source of validation and joy Debunking transphobic/homophobic rhetoric Strict binaries are almost non-existent The only unnatural condition is transphobia

Answer 17

Small home ranges/limited mobility Ectothermy - temp thresholds exist (and fragmentation changes thermal landscapes) Some habitat requirements are highly specific and limited - e.g., nesting areas, brumation sites, gestation areas

Answer 18

Direct mortality: Death on roads, due to agriculture equipment Indirect effects: Genetic diversity, reduced habitat quality, prey, etc.

Answer 19

They have gone up

Answer 20

A variety of pathogens impact reptiles, from viruses to parasite to fungi

Answer 21

Pathogen: Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola, a fungus Clinical signs: lesions, especially exiting brumation Susceptibility: variable, but rattlesnakes seem more susceptible that others Transmission: likely through contact and environment Not-so-fun fact: first discovered in NH rattlesnakes in 2006 (detected in VT rattlesnakes in 2012)

Answer 22

Exploitation Food Pet trade Medicinal trade Senseless killing: Fear, Lack of knowledge

Answer 23

Bounties were offered for timber rattlesnakes from 1894-1971 $1 payment per snake Snake oil Throughout this time period, newspapers would publish stories about hunting timber rattlesnakes The last known bounty record in West Haven was pain in 1968 Listed as endangered in 1987

Answer 24

Order: Squamata Suborder: Serpentes Family: Viperidae Crotalus horridus

Answer 25

A thick snake, 2-4 feet long Black and yellow color morphs with "W" pattern Rattle (lots of snake species rattle their tails as a behavior, but few have an actual rattle) Strongly keeled scales

Answer 26

Broad eastern distribution in US Northeastern US is northern edge Highly restrictive current range in VT

Answer 27

Sexual maturity - 6-11 years for females, 4-7 years for males Breeding - only every 3-6 years at northern latitudes - costly! Viviparous with parental care Longevity - more than 30 years

Answer 28

Endangers in Vermont (S1), New Hampshire, and Massachusetts Threatened in New York Extirpated in Maine

Answer 29

Habitat fragmentation Disease Illegal collecting or harvest

Answer 30

A helpful field mark for snakes! Can often be assessed without handling Strongly keeled scales: Have a ridge down the center of each scale Weakly keeled scales: Less pronounced ridge Unkeeled scale: Lack the ridge

Answer 31

Assessment of the NH timber rattlesnake population Findings - threats to this population include Lack of genetic diversity □ Evidence: morphological abnormalities, DNA markers Disease □ Fungal infection detected in several deceased specimens Climate □ Rainfall exacerbates impacts of disease

Answer 32

Developmental inside egg Some TSD, some GSD

Answer 33

Development inside the body of the parent

Answer 34

Females are the typical caregivers in reptiles when parental care (PC) occurs In part due to close association with eggs/hatchlings

Answer 35

Benefits of PC should be greatest in species in which reproductive output is already limited i.e., if one clutch per season is the normal, then increased investment may not reduce reproductive output appreciably

Answer 36

South American River Turtles (Podocnemis expansa) guide hatchlings from nesting beaches to feeding grounds □ Small and incapable of inflicting damage on nest predator Crocodilians guard nests □ Large and formidable and can effectively defend nests and young

Answer 37

Extensive in crocodilians Typically provided by females, but males can be involved - Females remain near nest after oviposition and defend it Vocalizations by hatchlings at the end of incubation attracts the female or both parents to the nest - Help the hatchling escape from the shell and carries them to the water Young remain together for a year or more - Attend by one or both parents - Distress calls stimulate defensive behaviors by adults

Answer 38

Only 3% of oviparous snakes and 1% of oviparous lizards exhibit parental care Large or venomous snakes (or both) - Females Crotalus (rattlesnakes) in NA tend to remain with young until they shed and disperse (live birth) - Typically, for 2 weeks (not huge cost due to infrequent feeding) Egg attendance is the most common type of parental care in lizards

Answer 39

Unlike amphibians, reptiles have low permeability - Water loss via skin is similar to mammals and birds However, hatchlings have highly permeable skin - Falls to adults levels after first shed Water still must be replenished Liquid water - From environment (i.e., ponds, puddles, etc.) - Water transport Preformed water from food Metabolic water (water produced by the body) - Hydrogen from food is combined with oxygen to form water

Answer 40

Long-term dormancy during periods of heat or drought Burying in mud or underground burrows Some species spend many months aestivating

Answer 41

Dormancy during period of cold and food scarcity Most reptiles hibernate in areas where temps don't fall below freezing Beneath the ice or under the frost line Don't eat or drink and metabolic rates fall by 70+% Anticipatory - animals are cued by weather, photoperiod, etc. and move towards brumation gradually

Answer 42

Rely on supercooling - Increase the concentration of bodily fluid (glucose, glycerol, urea, etc.) □ Lower freezing point Very risky Painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) hatchlings - Can remain unfrozen at temperatures as low as -20C

Answer 43

Freezing is deadly due to intracellular damage Very few reptiles can do this Refer to Wood Frog example in previous lecture for more information

Answer 44

All reptiles shed their skin as they grow - As well as periodically throughout life Sometimes, incomplete shedding may occur - Mites, incorrect humidity or handling, malnutrition, dermatitis, disease, or trauma As shedding begins the skin appears lightly dull and the eyes turn whitish blue - Separation between old and new skin - Lymph-like fluid accumulating between old eye layer and new layer Shedding differs from species to species - Also, different environmental conditions, nutrition, and growth rate

Answer 45

Turtles shed in pieces - Sloughs off their neck, legs, and old scutes Deciduous vs. non-deciduous scutes - Deciduous = shed periodically throughout the year □ Reduces shell rot, infections, parasites, etc. - Non-deciduous = only shed when shell grows □ Wood turtles don't shed their scutes ever!!!

Answer 46

Lizards shed skin in pieces as well - Some lizards eat their shed skin In rapidly growing individuals - Shedding can occur every 2 weeks!

Answer 47

Snakes shed their skin in one piece (like a sock!) - Except for giant snakes Very irritable and temperamental during shedding - May strike if handled You should not handle a shedding snake - Damages their new skin Growing snakes should shed once a month

Answer 48

Don't shed like the rest Shed their scutes - Often individually - Make room for new scutes

Answer 49

Helps detect highly odoriferous foods

Answer 50

Important sensory modality for squamates Detection of nonvolatile molecules □ i.e., tongue flicking transports particles to internal sensory organs

Answer 51

Pit vipers, boas, and pythons Sense infrared radiation

Answer 52

Sensing of vibrations, especially in fossorial and aquatic snakes

Answer 53

Heat from a mouse -> strike prey -> quickly release -> follow prey

Answer 54

Worthwhile if the increased availability of resources compensates for the costs of defense - Favored when resources are moderately abundant □ Less advantageous when resources are high or low Common in only one group of reptiles - Insectivorous lizards that employ a sit-and-wait foraging mode

Answer 55

Common in lizards Aggressive defense of all or part of home range Some species exhibit certain elements without defending an area with aggressive. Behavior - Mutual avoidance - Displays of color (e.g., western fence lizard pushups)

Answer 56

Not a characteristics of snakes Only one snake exhibits this behavior - Kukrisnake (Oligodon formosanus) □ Only on one tiny island (Orchid Island) - females defend sea turtle nests (a food source) from conspecifics □ Don't do it anywhere else within their range

Answer 57

Most species don't exhibit the type of breeding migrations seen in amphibians However, all aquatic reptiles that use terrestrial nest sites do Strong sites fidelity Freshwater turtles - Small turtles = ~50 meters - Large turtles = 50+ kilometers

Answer 58

Breeding Travel thousands of kilometers from feeding grounds to nesting sites - Return with great precision Lots of hatchling mortality - Predation, roads, etc.

Answer 59

Wildlife trafficking is an international crisis that involved the poaching, smuggling, and illegal trade of protected species. It is both a critical conservation concern and a threat to global security (US Fish and Wildlife Services)

Answer 60

Major threat to turtle populations worldwide - Slow growth rate, late maturity, low fecundity, and infrequent recruitment Illegal wildlife trade: demand for food, pets, commodity goods, and medicine

Answer 61

Motivational categories for wildlife use - Experiential (recreational), social (companionship), and functional (food, medicine) Consumer behavior may be impacted by: - Perceptions about turtles and their trade - Social norms - Values (Wildlife Value Orientations) Consumer research and collaboration with local actors

Answer 62

The eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina) - Forest-dwelling turtle species - Range: Eastern United States Listed as vulnerable IUCN list (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) Trade and Disease - Increased stress - Transported at high densities - Exposure to other turtles Reintroducing seized individuals

Answer 63

Confiscated turtles need a place to go - Capacity - Euthanasia We don’t know which locations are best The goal is to place turtles in populations with similar disease profiles - Neither residents nor reintroduced individual face increased disease risk

Answer 64

Turtle data collection - Hand-capture 100 EDTs over two field seasons on public roads and public parks - Disease samples: swabs from oral cavity, shell, and cloaca to run qPCR test for the disease - Kept counts for road mortality

Answer 65

All of Vermont's amphibians and reptiles are protected by law But normal (non-research) catch and release of common species does not require permits Photos are generally okay; but can't transport animals Handling for collection, research, education, art, or commercial photography requires a permit Threatened or endangered VT herps can't be handled without a special permit

Answer 66

In some ways, a personal choice Consider potential for: - Causing animal stress or injury - Spreading infectious disease - Altering normal behavior - Cost/benefit

Answer 67

If there are venomous snakes, herp carefully! Don’t rummage through brush piles Keep cover objects between you and the animal Perfect your ID skills If there is any doubt, don't handle or pursue

Answer 68

Pin gently on ground with a flat palm Pick up supporting the snake in the middle of the body Using two hands, let the snake run through your hands (don't pin at the head)

Answer 69

Snakes often release musk when handled Snakes sometimes bite, but most species have small teeth - Don’t pry them off, or you risk damaging their teeth and jaw - Ease them off □ If the snake is venomous, time is of the essence, seek help immediately

Answer 70

Very similar to what we talked about for Amphibians - Refer to Amphibian field methods for details The methods depend on: - Research question - Life history and species considerations - Detectability - Effort

Answer 71

Used to determine species presence/count Sometimes the count is enough, sometimes leads to a capture event Often may encounter multiple species and need to ID species by sight Effort and/or area-constrained

Answer 72

Capitalizes on squamate need for heat Various materials used - Slate, plywood, corrugated steel, roofing material, etc. Sometimes layered Area-constrained (number of cover objects)

Answer 73

Keep cover between you and the potential animal in venomous snake territory (turn the cover toward you) Always replace cover first, then the animal - The animal will find their way back under the cover - Goes for amphibians, reptiles, inverts, etc. - They will find their way back!

Answer 74

A small wood pile covered in black rubber roofing material

Answer 75

Must be quick! - Maybe not so quick with turtles Often variable results depending on time of day, weather, etc

Answer 76

Used with thermal imaging to detect both rare (e.g., massasauga rattlesnakes) and introduced (e.g., Burmese pythons) Can be used for various taxa

Answer 77

Refer back to the Amphibians Methods for more information Also works for reptiles!

Answer 78

If hibernation sites are known, this can be a cheap and effective way at monitoring the number of snakes that successfully overwinter Similarly, historic gestation sites are known for some species (e.g., rattlesnakes in VT) Variation in counts due to weather, timing, etc. causes difficulties interpreting these data

Answer 79

Pitfall and funnel traps commonly used Also "lassoing" - Using fishing line and fishing pole - Can sneak up on a lizard and quickly capture it Must be well-trained to do this - Otherwise, it can be dangerous for the lizard Handle lizards gently but firmly, away from internal organs and tail

Answer 80

Same general idea as for amphibians - Snout-vent-length - Total length

Answer 81

Active search Transect-based search of suitable habitat

Answer 82

In some way similar to egg mass survey protocols Typically using binoculars Species and total number recorded

Answer 83

Variability due to weather Observer training

Answer 84

Snorkel surveys - Good for freshwater turtles in habitats with high visibility Nesting surveys - Important if reproduction is of interest, or in identifying nesting habitat - Can also survey after nesting to understand nest predation, hatch rates, etc.

Answer 85

Using human-made structures or loggers to monitor turtles (traps that don’t physically trap animals)

Answer 86

Environmental DNA (eDNA) - detection of DNA via water filtration - Skin cells, DNA from feces, eggs, microorganism DNA, etc PCR used for organism detection - Considerations: rare species

Answer 87

Easy passive sampling Both are ways to boot detection probability Platform - Build it and they will come Camera - Can be used with platforms or alone

Answer 88

A floating platform with sloping sides and a basking plant When turtles jump off the basking plank, they are trapped in the center Can be very effective - E.g. those that consistently bask Consider: Efficiency will vary with weather, species, age/size, etc.

Answer 89

Similar funnel design to minnow traps for amphibians - Easy to get in, not easy to get out Bait by tying a sock filled with sardines or wet dog food in the inside of the trap Stake traps in place Considerations - Maintaining air space at the top is critical - Must be checked every 24 hours Challenges: can be heavy! - Bycatch - Aquatic invasive species □ Harm ecosystems and economy What goes in must come out

Answer 90

Respect their long neck - Its longer than most think Do not pick up by its tail - This can separate their vertebrae Do not pick up big turtles by their posterior margin - This can harm their carapace Pick them up at the base of their back legs

Answer 91

Sex - Visual characteristics differ by species Carapace and plastron - Length/width □ Typically with calipers Weight - With a scale Check for marks - Scute notches

Answer 92

a toxin secreted by an animal, and typically injected into prey or aggressors by biting or stinging

Answer 93

dissolve tissue and muscle hemorrhage

Answer 94

block signals from nerves paralysis, suffocation

Answer 95

rupture red blood cells or alter clotting internal bleeding, blockages --> strokes

Answer 96

This hypothesis posits that venom evolved once in a common reptile ancestor to all snakes and some lizards (Anguimorpha [the monitor lizards] and Iguania [the iguanas])

Answer 97

typically, family Elapidae often hollow fangs suited for injections ex: cobras, mambas

Answer 98

typically, Family Viperidae swings into position, as if on a hinge ex: vipers

Answer 99

envenomation occurs via a chewing process and takes some times. Fangs not designed for injection Typically, family Colubridae

Answer 100

grooved teeth for delivery of venom from venom glands

Answer 101

1.~750 venomous snake species occur around globe, ~200 capable of killing a human. Only 6 in southeastern U.S, 1 of which could kill a human. 2.~50,000 human deaths from snake envenomation annually. <1 per year in U.S. Human fear of snakes is arguably natural and adaptive in many parts of the world, but… not in U.S.

Answer 102

Life History - A set of co-evolved traits that affects an individual’s survival and reproductive potential

Answer 103

age specific survivorship brood size reproductive mode size of young at birth or hatching age and size at reproduction distribution of reproductive effort growth rates interaction of reproductive effort with adult mortality

Answer 104

all reptiles have a cloaca (multipurpose vent for excreting and mating) male reptiles (except tuataras!) have additional anatomy stored in the cloaca

Answer 105

hemipenes (forked penis)

Answer 106

phallus (single penis)

Answer 107

brief touching of cloacas that leads to sperm transfer, similar to copulation in birds

Answer 108

often many males, and 1 or 2 females often directly after hibernation (very soon now!)

Answer 109

in some species, this takes place in late summer animals find one another through pheromone trails

Answer 110

oviparity in the ancestral state more control over development than oviparity because the female carries offspring in the body some squamates (20%; mainly snakes) correlated with residence in cold and/or variable climates

Answer 111

females deposit eggs (typically in a nest) that develop and hatch in the external environment receive all their fetal nutrition from yolk within the egg all testudines, crocodilians, rhynocephalians (tuatara), and most squamates (~80%)