Reproductive and Oncology Flashcards
1
Q
What is a neoplasm?
A
An abnormal mass of tissue formed due to uncontrolled cell division; can be benign or malignant.
2
Q
What does ‘oncogenesis’ refer to?
A
The process of tumor formation.
3
Q
Define carcinoma.
A
A malignant tumor arising from epithelial cells.
4
Q
What is sarcoma?
A
A malignant tumor of connective or supportive tissue (e.g., bone, muscle).
5
Q
Define lymphoma.
A
Cancer of the lymphatic system.
6
Q
What is leukemia?
A
Cancer of the blood-forming tissues, characterized by uncontrolled production of white blood cells.
7
Q
What does ‘metastasis’ mean?
A
The spread of cancer cells from the primary site to distant organs.
8
Q
What is angiogenesis in cancer?
A
Formation of new blood vessels to supply nutrients to tumors.
9
Q
Define tumor suppressor genes.
A
Genes that regulate cell growth and prevent cancer; when inactivated, cancer may develop.
10
Q
What is a proto-oncogene?
A
A normal gene that can become an oncogene due to mutations.
11
Q
Name 3 features of benign tumors.
A
Slow-growing, non-invasive, well-differentiated.
12
Q
Name 3 features of malignant tumors.
A
Rapid growth, invasive, poorly differentiated.
13
Q
Can benign tumors metastasize?
A
No, only malignant tumors can metastasize.
14
Q
What is encapsulation in tumors?
A
Benign tumors are usually enclosed in a fibrous capsule; malignant ones are not.
15
Q
List lifestyle-related cancer risk factors.
A
Smoking, alcohol, poor diet, obesity, physical inactivity.
16
Q
Name environmental cancer risk factors.
A
Radiation, asbestos, UV exposure, chemicals.
17
Q
What infections are associated with cancer?
A
HPV (cervical cancer), Hepatitis B/C (liver cancer), H. pylori (gastric cancer).
18
Q
How does chronic inflammation contribute to cancer?
A
Promotes cellular damage and proliferation.
19
Q
Is immunosuppression a cancer risk?
A
Yes, due to reduced immune surveillance.
20
Q
What are the original 6 hallmarks of cancer?
A
Sustaining proliferative signaling
Evading growth suppressors
Resisting cell death
Enabling replicative immortality
Inducing angiogenesis
Activating invasion and metastasis
21
Q
What are the newer hallmarks of cancer?
A
Deregulating cellular energetics
Avoiding immune destruction
Genome instability
Tumor-promoting inflammation
22
Q
What does “enabling replicative immortality” mean?
A
Cancer cells avoid senescence and continue dividing indefinitely, often via telomerase.
23
Q
How do cancer cells induce angiogenesis?
A
By releasing VEGF to create new blood vessels.
24
Q
What is the role of immune evasion in cancer?
A
Tumors avoid detection or destruction by the immune system.
25
What does IL-10 do in cancer?
Suppresses immune responses, helping tumor cells escape detection.
26
What are TAMs (Tumor-Associated Macrophages)?
Macrophages that support tumor growth and angiogenesis.
27
What are CAFs (Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts)?
Fibroblasts in the tumor microenvironment that promote tumor growth and invasion.
28
What is VEGF and what does it do?
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor; promotes angiogenesis for tumor blood supply.
29
What is a needle biopsy?
Uses a needle to extract tissue; can be fine or core.
30
What is an incisional biopsy?
Removal of a small part of the tumor for analysis.
31
What is an excisional biopsy?
Complete removal of the suspicious tissue.
32
What is an endoscopic biopsy?
Tissue sampling via endoscopy.
33
What are common primary liver cancers?
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and cholangiocarcinoma.
34
What is the main risk factor for HCC?
Chronic hepatitis B or C infection.
35
Other liver cancer risk factors?
Alcohol, cirrhosis, aflatoxin exposure, NAFLD.
36
Common liver cancer symptoms?
Jaundice, weight loss, RUQ pain, hepatomegaly.
37
How is liver cancer diagnosed?
Imaging (CT, MRI), AFP levels, biopsy.
38
What does AFP stand for and why is it important?
Alpha-fetoprotein; elevated in liver cancer.
39
Treatments for liver cancer?
Surgery, transplant, chemotherapy, ablation, targeted therapy.
40
General symptoms of cancer?
Unexplained weight loss, fatigue, night sweats, pain, lump.
41
Local symptoms of cancer?
Based on tumor location—e.g., coughing in lung cancer.
42
What is cytotoxicity?
The ability of agents (e.g., drugs, immune cells) to kill cancer cells.
43
Which cells are cytotoxic in the immune system?
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes and NK cells.
44
What are leiomyomas?
Benign smooth muscle tumors of the uterus (fibroids).
45
Symptoms of leiomyomas?
Heavy bleeding, pelvic pain, infertility.
46
What is dysmenorrhea?
Painful menstruation, can be primary (no pathology) or secondary (due to disease).
47
What is testicular torsion?
Twisting of the spermatic cord; a surgical emergency.
48
What is salpingitis?
Inflammation of the fallopian tubes, often from infection.
49
What is ectopic pregnancy?
Pregnancy implanted outside the uterus, commonly in fallopian tube.
50
What is PCOS?
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome; hormonal disorder with multiple ovarian cysts.
51
Symptoms of PCOS?
Irregular periods, hirsutism, acne, obesity, infertility.
52
Pathophysiology of PCOS?
Elevated androgens, insulin resistance, disrupted ovulation.
53
Treatment for PCOS?
Weight loss, metformin, hormonal contraceptives.
54
What is endometriosis?
Endometrial tissue grows outside uterus.
55
Symptoms of endometriosis?
Painful periods, infertility, pelvic pain.
56
How is endometriosis treated?
Hormones, NSAIDs, surgery.
57
What is pelvic floor dysfunction?
Weakness or tightness in pelvic floor muscles causing bladder/bowel issues.
58
Treatment for pelvic floor dysfunction?
Physical therapy, biofeedback, muscle training.
59
What is BPH?
Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; non-cancerous prostate enlargement.
60
Symptoms of BPH?
Urinary frequency, urgency, weak stream.
61
Treatment for BPH?
Alpha blockers (e.g., tamsulosin), 5-alpha reductase inhibitors.
62
What are causes of abnormal vaginal bleeding?
Fibroids, polyps, cancer, PCOS, endometriosis, hormonal imbalance.
63
What artery supplies blood to female genitalia?
Internal pudendal artery.
64
What supplies the testes with blood?
Testicular arteries from the abdominal aorta.
65
What are common viral STIs?
HPV, HSV (herpes), HIV, HBV, HCV.
66
What is the most common viral STI?
HPV.
67
What is a primary tumor?
The original site of cancer growth.
68
What is a metastatic tumor?
Cancer that has spread from the primary site to a distant location.
69
What does Stage 0 cancer mean?
Carcinoma in situ; localized and hasn’t invaded deeper tissues.
70
What is Stage I cancer?
Localized to one region, small and hasn't spread.
71
What is Stage II cancer?
Larger tumor with possible nearby lymph node involvement.
72
What is Stage III cancer?
Spread to nearby tissues and lymph nodes.
73
What is Stage IV cancer?
Distant metastasis; cancer has spread to distant organs.
74
Explain the difference between benign and malignant tumors.
Benign tumors are non-invasive, well-differentiated, slow-growing, and do not metastasize. Malignant tumors are invasive, poorly differentiated, can grow rapidly, and have the potential to metastasize.
75
What does metastasis mean, and how does it occur?
Metastasis is the spread of cancer from the original (primary) site to distant organs via lymphatic or blood vessels.
76
What is the function of tumor suppressor genes, and what happens when they are mutated?
Tumor suppressor genes regulate cell growth and prevent uncontrolled proliferation. When mutated, they lose this control, allowing abnormal cell division and tumor growth.
77
List three modifiable and three non-modifiable risk factors for cancer.
Modifiable: Smoking, alcohol use, poor diet
Non-modifiable: Age, genetics, family history
78
Describe the hallmark 'sustained proliferative signaling' in cancer.
Cancer cells continuously signal themselves to divide and grow, often by activating growth factor pathways or mutating receptors.
79
How does the hallmark 'evading immune destruction' help cancer progression?
Tumors manipulate the immune system, often by suppressing T-cell activity or increasing IL-10 production, to avoid being killed.
80
What is the role of VEGF in tumor development?
VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor) stimulates the formation of new blood vessels to supply nutrients and oxygen to tumors.
81
Differentiate between IL-10, TAMs, CAFs, and VEGF in the tumor microenvironment.
IL-10: Suppresses immune response
TAMs: Promote tumor growth and angiogenesis
CAFs: Support tumor invasion and remodeling
VEGF: Drives blood vessel formation
82
How do cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) influence tumor progression?
CAFs secrete enzymes and growth factors that remodel the tumor environment, helping with invasion and metastasis.
83
Compare a fine-needle aspiration with an excisional biopsy.
Fine-needle aspiration uses a thin needle to extract cells for testing; excisional biopsy removes an entire lump or suspicious area for analysis.
84
Why is alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) significant in liver cancer diagnosis?
Elevated AFP levels can indicate hepatocellular carcinoma and help monitor treatment response.
85
Identify two major risk factors for hepatocellular carcinoma.
Chronic hepatitis B or C infection, and liver cirrhosis (often due to alcohol or NAFLD).
86
What are common clinical manifestations of liver cancer?
RUQ pain, hepatomegaly, jaundice, unexplained weight loss, and fatigue.
87
What is cytotoxicity and which cells are primarily responsible for it?
Cytotoxicity is the destruction of target cells; primarily carried out by cytotoxic T cells and natural killer (NK) cells.
88
How do cancer cells evade cytotoxic immune cells?
By downregulating antigen presentation, secreting immunosuppressive cytokines (like IL-10), or recruiting Tregs.
89
Define the difference between primary and metastatic cancer.
Primary cancer originates at a specific site, while metastatic cancer refers to cancer that has spread to distant sites.
90
What distinguishes Stage I from Stage IV cancer?
Stage I is localized with minimal spread; Stage IV involves metastasis to distant organs.
91
What is testicular torsion and why is it an emergency?
It is the twisting of the spermatic cord, cutting off blood supply to the testis; requires immediate surgery to save the testicle.
92
Define salpingitis and its potential complication.
Inflammation of the fallopian tubes, often due to infection; can lead to infertility or ectopic pregnancy.
93
Describe leiomyomas and one clinical symptom.
Benign uterine fibroids; commonly cause heavy menstrual bleeding.
94
What is the pathophysiology of PCOS?
Hyperandrogenism, insulin resistance, and irregular LH/FSH balance lead to anovulation and cyst formation on ovaries.
95
What are three common symptoms of PCOS?
Irregular periods, hirsutism, infertility.
96
How is endometriosis different from PCOS in terms of tissue growth?
Endometriosis involves ectopic growth of endometrial tissue outside the uterus; PCOS involves cysts within the ovaries.
97
What causes pelvic floor dysfunction and what are typical symptoms?
Weak or overly tight pelvic muscles; causes incontinence, pelvic pain, or constipation.
98
What is BPH and how does it affect urination?
Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia is prostate enlargement that compresses the urethra, causing weak stream and urinary retention.
99
Name three viral STIs.
HPV, HSV, HIV.
100
What are some causes of abnormal vaginal bleeding?
PCOS, endometriosis, fibroids, cancer, hormonal imbalances.
101
What supplies blood to the external genitalia?
The internal pudendal artery.
102
What artery supplies blood to the testes?
Testicular arteries branching off the abdominal aorta.
103
A 45-year-old woman presents with abnormal uterine bleeding and severe menstrual pain. What two conditions would you consider and how would you differentiate them?
Consider leiomyomas and endometriosis. Leiomyomas are detected via imaging and cause structural uterine changes. Endometriosis often requires laparoscopy for diagnosis and includes symptoms like pain with intercourse or bowel movements.
