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REPRODUCTION Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Menstural cycle

A
  • At the start of each cycle, menstruation occurs – the lining of the uterus breaks down, and the cells and blood in the lining are shed via the vagina. This is menstruation.
  • The uterus lining then starts to build up again, developing a mass of blood vessels so that it is ready to receive a fertilised ovum.
  • A follicle in one of the ovaries matures into an ovum.
  • About half-way through the cycle, the wall of the ovary ruptures and an ovum is released.
  • Towards the end of the cycle, the lining of the uterus breaks down again.
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2
Q

sex hormones in humans

A

These are responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics at puberty. Testosterone, secreted by the testes, causes the changes in boys; oestrogen, secreted by the ovaries, causes the changes in girls. Puberty is when the sex organs (ovaries in girls; testes in boys) become mature and start to secrete hormones and make gametes (ova and sperm). Puberty happens usually between the ages of 10 and 14 years, but varies from person to person.

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3
Q

Male female puberty changes

A
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4
Q

function of placenta and umbrical cord

A

The placenta brings the blood supply of the fetus close to that of the mother, but prevents mixing. This is really important because the fetus and mother may have different blood groups – any mixing could result in blood clotting, which could be fatal to both mother and fetus. Blood from the fetus passes through the umbilical cord, in the umbilical artery, to the placenta. Here it comes close to the mother’s blood. Oxygen, amino acids, glucose and other nutrients diffuse into the blood of the fetus from the mother’s blood. Carbon dioxide, urea and other wastes pass into the mother’s blood from the blood of the fetus. Blood returns to the fetus through the umbilical vein, also in the umbilical cord. The placenta acts as a barrier to toxins and pathogens. However, some drugs (such as aspirin and heroin), along with nicotine and carbon monoxide from smoking, alcohol from drinks and viruses such as HIV and rubella (German measles), can all pass across the placenta, risking the health of the developing fetus

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5
Q

formation of fetus

A

The zygote starts to divide by mitosis to form a ball of cells (a blastula). It continues to move down the oviduct until it reaches the uterus.

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6
Q

Advantages of breastfeeding over bottle feeding

over bottle feeding

A

Advantages (some are to the baby, while others are to the mother):

  • There are antibodies present in breast milk, giving the baby protection against infection.
  • Foodstuffs are present in breast milk in the correct proportions, with no additives or preservatives.
  • There is no risk of an allergic reaction to breast milk. • Breast milk is produced at the correct temperature.
  • Breastfeeding builds a bond between mother and baby.
  • Breast milk does not require sterilisation, as there are no bacteria present that could cause intestinal disease.
  • There is no cost involved in using breast milk and it does not need to be prepared.
  • Breastfeeding triggers a reduction in the size of the mother’s uterus.
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7
Q

Disadvanatges of breast feeding

A

Disadvantages (all are to the mother):

  • The mother has to do the feeding (although milk could be expressed into a container).
  • The process of breastfeeding can be painful.
  • It is not possible to measure how much milk the baby has consumed.
  • It is more difficult for a breastfeeding mother to go back to work.
  • The mother may need to avoid some strongly flavoured foods in her diet.
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8
Q

Hormones and menstural cycle

A

At the start of the cycle, the lining of the uterus wall has broken down (menstruation). As each follicle in the ovaries develops, the amount of oestrogen produced by the ovary increases.

The oestrogen acts on the uterus and causes its lining to become thicker and develop more blood vessels. These are changes that help an early embryo to implant. The pituitary gland at the base of the brain secretes follicle-stimulating hormone (FS

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9
Q

Uterus lining hormone levels graph

A
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10
Q

Insect wind difference

A
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11
Q

WATER

A

Water is absorbed through the micropyle until the radicle has forced its way out of the testa. It is needed to activate enzymes that convert insoluble food stores into soluble foods that can be used for growth and energy production

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12
Q

OXYGEN

A

Oxygen is needed for respiration to release energy for growth and the chemical changes needed for mobilisation of food reserves

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13
Q

SUITABLE TEMP

A

Enzymes work best at an optimum temperature. Generally, the higher the temperature (up to 40 ° C), the faster the rate of germination. However, some seeds need a period of chilling before they will germinate. Low temperatures usually maintain dormancy – if the seed germinated in unsuitable conditions, it would be unlikely to survive

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14
Q

Artificial insemination

A

Artificial insemination is a way of increasing the chances of a woman having a baby when the male partner is infertile. It involves using sperm from a donor. The sperm are inserted into the female partner’s uterus around the time of ovulation.

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15
Q

Using hormones for contraception

A

Oestrogen and progesterone control important events in the menstrual cycle. Oestrogen encourages the re-growth of the lining of the uterus wall after a period and prevents the release of FSH. If FSH is blocked, no further ova are matured.

The uterus lining needs to be thick to allow successful implantation of an embryo. Progesterone maintains the thickness of the uterine lining. It also inhibits the secretion of LH, which is responsible for ovulation. If LH is suppressed, ovulation cannot happen, so there are no ova to be fertilised.

Because of the roles of oestrogen and progesterone, they are used, singly or in combination, in a range of contraceptive methods.

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16
Q

Growth of pollen tube and fertilization proces

A

If pollen grains are of the same species as the flower they land on, they may germinate. Germination is triggered by a sugary solution on the stigma and involves the growth of a pollen tube from the pollen grain. The pollen tube contains the male nucleus, which is needed to fertilise the ovule inside the ovary. The pollen tube grows down the style, through the ovary wall and through the micropyle of the ovule.

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17
Q

penis

A

Can become firm so that it can be inserted into the vagina of the female during sexual intercourse to transfer sperm

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18
Q

prostate gland

A

Adds fluid and nutrients to sperm to form semen

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19
Q

scortum

A

A sac that holds the testes outside the body, keeping them cooler than body temperature

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20
Q

sperm duct

A

Muscular tube that links the testis to the urethra to allow the passage of semen containing sperm

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21
Q

testes

A

Male gonads that produce sperm

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22
Q

urethra

A

Passes semen containing sperm to the penis; also carries urine from the bladder at different times

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23
Q

birth control table

A
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24
Q

method of transmission

A
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25
Q

Atrenal care

A
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26
Q

fetus diagram

A
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27
Q

birth

A
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28
Q

How HIV affects the immune system

A

HIV attacks some types of lymphocyte (white blood cells) in the bloodstream. Lymphocytes produce antibodies, which attack the antigens present on invading microbes. Some lymphocytes are stored in lymph nodes to provide protection against future infections. HIV prevents this immunity being retained, so the AIDS sufferer has no protection against diseases such as tuberculosis (TB) and pneumonia.

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29
Q

sexually transmitted infections

A

You need to learn the definition of a sexually transmitted infection (STI) that is given at the start of this chapter. These are diseases passed on during unprotected sexual intercourse. You need to know that human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is an example of an STI. HIV may result in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Details are shown in the following

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30
Q

advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction

A
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31
Q

advanatge disadvantage sexual reproduction

A
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32
Q

diff egg sperm

A
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33
Q

fertilization pollen

A

Fertilisation happens when the pollen nucleus fuses with the nucleus of the ovule.

34
Q

envitonmrntal condtns affecting germination

A

A seed is a living structure. It contains an embryo that will germinate and develop into an adult plant if provided with suitable conditions. These

35
Q

self pollination

A

Self-pollination involves the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or to another flower of the same plant. Pollinators are not needed and smaller numbers of pollen grains need to be produced because there is a greater chance of successful pollination. This increases the chance of fertilisation and seed formation, but reduces the variation in the offspring. Self-pollinated plants are less likely to cope with adapting to environmental change.

36
Q

cross pollination

A

Cross-pollination involves the transfer of pollen from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same species. This reduces the chance of fertilisation (wind-pollinated flowers produce large numbers of pollen grains because of the wastage involved), but increases variation and the ability to adapt to environmental change. In addition, pollinators are needed for this process.

37
Q

vagina

A
38
Q

D asexual reproduction

A

The process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent

39
Q

D sexual reproduction

A

A process involving the fusion of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other

40
Q

D fertilisation

A

The fusion of gamete nuclei

41
Q

D pollination

A

The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma

42
Q

D sexually transmitted infection

A

An infection that is transmitted via body fluids through sexual contact

43
Q

D self pollination

A

The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or a different flower on the same plant

44
Q

D cross pollination

A

The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same species

45
Q

penis

A
46
Q

bacteria

A

Bacteria reproduces asexually by binary fission.Inside an individual bacterium,the DNA replicates the cell divides into 2,with each daughter cell containing copy of the parental DNA.Once the daughter cells have grown they can also reproduce.

47
Q

vagina 2

A
48
Q

seed diagram

A
49
Q

Adaptive features of sperm and egg cells

A
50
Q

cervix

A

A ring of muscle that separates the vagina from the uterus

51
Q

ovary

A

Contains follicles in which ova (eggs) are produced

52
Q

oviduct

A

Carries an ovum to the uterus, with propulsion provided by tiny cilia in the wall; also the site of fertilisation

53
Q

uterus

A

Where the fetus develops

54
Q

VAGINA E

A

Receives the male penis during sexual intercourse; sperm are deposited here

55
Q

petal

A

Often large and coloured to attract insects

56
Q

sepal

A

Protects the flower while in buds

57
Q

stamen

A

The male reproductive part of the flower, made up of the anther and filament

58
Q

anther

A

Contains pollen sacs in which pollen grains are formed. Pollen contains male sex cells. Note: you need to be able describe an anther

59
Q

filament

A

Supports the anther

60
Q

carpel

A

The female reproductive part of the flower, made up of the stigma, style and ovary

61
Q

stigma

A

A sticky surface that receives pollen during pollination. Note: you need to be able to describe a stigma

62
Q

style

A

Links the stigma to the ovary through which pollen tubes grow

63
Q

ovary

A

Contains ovules

64
Q

ovule

A

Contains a haploid nucleus, which develops into a seed when fertilised

65
Q

flower

A
66
Q

Development of the fetus –

A

the blastula develops into an embryo and some of the cells form a placenta, linking the embryo with the uterus lining. Organs such as the heart develop and, after eight weeks, the embryo is called a fetus.

67
Q

Growth of the fetus

A

Growth of the fetus requires a good supply of nutrients and oxygen. This is achieved through the link between the placenta and the mother’s blood supply in the uterus lining (see Figure 16.7). The placenta transfers oxygen to the blood supply of the fetus, which passes through the umbilical cord and removes carbon dioxide and other waste products. The fetus is surrounded by an amniotic sac.

68
Q

The amniotic sac

A

The amniotic sac is a membrane, formed from cells of the embryo, which contains the amniotic fluid. It encloses the developing fetus and prevents the entry of bacteria. Amniotic fluid supports the fetus, protecting it from physical damage. It absorbs excretory materials (urine) released by the fetus. As the fetus grows in the early stages it becomes increasingly complex, with systems of the body developing. Towards the end of pregnancy, its size increases substantially.

69
Q

implantation

A

Implantation occurs when the blastula embeds in the lining of the uterus.

70
Q

There are antibodies present

A

in breast milk, giving the baby protection against infection.

71
Q

Foodstuffs are present in

A

breast milk in the correct proportions, with no additives or preservatives.

72
Q

There is no

A

risk of an allergic reaction to breast milk.

73
Q

Breastfeeding builds

A

a bond between mother and baby.

74
Q

Breast milk does not require

A

sterilisation , as there are no bacteria present that could cause intestinal disease.

75
Q

here is no cost involved

A

in using breast milk and it does not need to be prepared.

76
Q

Breastfeeding triggers

A

a reduction in the size of the mother’s uterus.

77
Q

fertilisation pollen grain

A

Fertilisation is the fusion of the male nucleus (in the pollen grain) with the female nucleus (in the ovule). If the ovary contains a lot of ovules, each will need to be fertilised by a different pollen nucleus.

78
Q
A
79
Q

fungi

A

Fungi can reproduce asexually by producing spores,which may be formed inside a structure called sporangium.When ripe,sporangium bursts open allowing the spres to be dispersed.In suitable conditions,spores will germinate and grow to form new individuals.

80
Q

potatoes

A

Potatoes are stem tubers.The parent plant photosynthesises and stores the food produced in underground stems,which swell to form tubers.Each tuber contains starch and there are buds in depression in surface known as eyes.In suitable conditions,the buds used the stored foods to form shoots,form roots also develop.Each tuber can form into a new plant.

81
Q

H) and luteinising hormone, or lutropin (LH),

A

which promote ovulation. Once the ovum has been released, the follicle that produced it develops into a solid body called the corpus luteum. This produces a hormone called progesterone, which makes the uterus lining grow thicker and produce more blood vessels. If the ovum is fertilised, the corpus luteum continues to release progesterone and so keeps the uterus in a state suitable for implantation.

82
Q

If the ovum is not fertilised, the corpus luteum

A

stops producing progesterone. The lining of the uterus then breaks down and loses blood, which escapes through the cervix and vagina (menstruation).​

Biology RG (20 decks)

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