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Biology 30 > Reproduction > Flashcards

Reproduction Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the female primary sex characteristics:

A

Gonads (ovaries), oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina, vulva

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2
Q

What are the secondary female sex characteristics:

A

Minimal hair on face and body, prominent breasts, higher voice, rounded shoulders, wider hips, less muscle development

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3
Q

Describe ovaries:

A
  • Suspended by ligaments inside abdomen
  • Site of oogenesis (egg production)
  • Contains follicles where eggs mature (one follicle per month)
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4
Q

Describe the fimbriae:

A

Finger-like projections (catcher’s mitt) that sweep the ovaries to collect eggs and direct them to the oviduct

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5
Q

Describe the oviduct:

A

Carries the ovum (egg) from ovary to uterus

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6
Q

Describe the uterus:

A
  • Muscular organ
  • Holds and nourishes fetus
  • Size and shape of a pear
  • Lined by endometrium – supplied by many blood vessels
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7
Q

Describe the cervix:

A

Base of uterus – opening between uterus and vagina

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8
Q

Describe the vagina:

A

Opening to female reproductive system – where sperm is deposited

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9
Q

Describe the vulva:

A

Labia majora and minora are folds of skin that protect vaginal opening (also includes clitoris)

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10
Q

What are ova?

A
  • Ovaries produce only a limited number of ova (eggs)
  • Single ovum develops in a single follicle each month
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11
Q

Describe oogenesis:

A
  • Oogonium develop into diploid primary oocytes stuck in prophase I (Girls are born with all of their 1° oocytes in Prophase I of meiosis – about 2 million)
  • Every month after puberty until menopause, a 1° oocyte undergoes meiosis I (and part of meiosis II) to produce 1 haploid secondary (2°) oocyte (stuck in metaphase II) and 1 polar body
  • Ovulation occurs at Metaphase II
  • Meiosis II only proceeds through Anaphase II and Telophase II if the egg is fertilized
  • Upon fertilization meiosis II creates a haploid ootid and a polar body
  • The ootid quickly matures into an ovum and the 2 haploid nuclei (egg and sperm) fuse
  • Oogenesis produces one ovum and two polar bodies (are just abosrbed)
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12
Q

Describe ovulation:

A
  • Follicle matures and ruptures
  • Fimbriae pick up ovum and sweep it into oviducts
  • Oviduct is cilia-lined and carries ovum to uterus
  • Mature ovum is 20 times larger than sperm and has thick membrane
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13
Q

Describe pre-natal development:

A
  • Estrogen and progesterone cause prenatal development of female reproductive organs
  • Also responsible for female secondary sex characteristics during puberty
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14
Q

Describe mensuration:

A
  • Coordinates ovulation and the readying of the uterus for implantation of fertilized egg
  • Cycle is 28 days on average
  • Cycle begins with menstruation and ends with the start of the next menstrual period
  • A combination of ovarian and uterine cycle
  • Periodic discharge of blood and fluid from uterus - caused by low levels of estrogen and progesterone at end of monthly cycle (hormone withdrawal)
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15
Q

Describe the ovarian cycle:

A
  • Female is born with about 2 million follicles, only about 400 will release a matured ovum
  • Overview: follicle matures, releases an ovum, then follicle forms a corpus luteum (temporary endocrine gland)
  • Two stages of ovarian cycle: follicular and luteal stage
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16
Q

Day 1-5: Flow Phase (uterine)

A
  • Lasts an average of five days
  • Marked by the shedding of endometrial lining
  • Triggered by a decrease in ovarian hormones (particularly progesterone)  stimulates FSH and LH from pituitary
  • Corpus luteum degenerates forming corpus albicans
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17
Q

Day 6-13: Follicular Phase (ovarian)

A
  • Increase in FSH from anterior pituitary
  • Governed by estrogen released by developing follicle (which is stimulated by FSH)
  • One follicle is stimulated to mature
  • Estrogen inhibits FSH release -> FSH decreases (negative feedback)
  • Estrogen stimulates the hypothalamus to release GnRH -> LH released from anterior pituitary (LH increases – positive feedback by estrogen)
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18
Q

Day 14: Ovulation

A
  • Estrogen peaks just before & LH and FSH levels peak
  • LH triggers ovulation
    Follicle erupts, ovum is released into fallopian tube
  • Female’s temperature peaks (may be used as a contraceptive method or to help in impregnation)
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19
Q

Day 15 – 28: Luteal Stage (ovarian)

A
  • LH causes the empty follicle to develop into a corpus luteum
  • Governed by progesterone released by the corpus luteum (stimulated by LH)
  • Corpus luteum secretes progesterone and estrogen
  • Estrogen and progesterone inhibit anterior pituitary –> LH and FSH secretion decreased (negative feedback) —>
  • Corpus luteum degenerates —> less estrogen and progesterone secreted
  • FSH secretion not inhibited once drop in hormones —> back to follicular stage (new cycle)
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20
Q

If implantation of a Fertilized Egg Occurs…..

A
  • Embryo-supported membranes secrete a hormone called hCG
  • Estrogen and progesterone secretion continues
  • Progesterone maintains endometrium
  • Estrogen stops ovarian cycle (so no more follicles mature)
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21
Q

Describe the Uterine Cycle

A
  • On first day of cycle, the corpus luteum has completely degenerated, estrogen and progesterone are low
  • Estrogen released from developing follicle – by day six endometrium begins to thicken
  • After ovulation, progestrone stimulates endometrium to thicken even more (doubles or triples by day 15-23)
  • When corpus luteum degenerates and sex hormones drop, endometrium breaks down and menstruation begins
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22
Q

Describe menopause:

A
  • Number of functioning follicles decreases with age
  • Hormone levels drop
  • Menstrual cycle becomes irregular
  • Takes a few years to stop altogether – menopause
  • Decrease of sex hormones disrupts homeostasis of other hormone systems
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23
Q

What are three things to remember about female hormones?

A
  1. Drop in progesterone =
    menstruation or miscarriage
  2. Peak/spike/increase in LH =
    positive ovulation test (for trying to get pregnant)
  3. Peak/spike/increase in HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)=
    positive pregnancy test
    (Made by cells in the placenta; can be detected by urine test/blood test)
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24
Q

Describe primary sex characteristics:

A

Structures that play a direct role in reproduction

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25
Q

Describe secondary sex characteristics:

A

Characteristics that are unique to males or females but do not play a direct role in reproduction

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26
Q

Describe the primary sex characteristics of males:

A

Testes (male gonads), scrotum, epididymis, ductus deferens, penis, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, Cowper’s gland

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27
Q

Describe the secondary sex characteristics of males:

A

Facial hair, body hair, deep voice, narrow hips, muscle development

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28
Q

What are testes?

A
  • Organs where sperm are produced
  • Scrotum contains the testes and helps regulate temperature – when cold outside, the scrotum pulls the testes closer; when warm, the testes hang lower – away from the body
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29
Q

What are the parts of the testes?

A
  • Ducts (Vas) deferens
  • Epididymis
  • Septum
  • Seminiferous tubules
  • Lobule
  • Testis
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30
Q

Describe the penis:

A
  • Male organ for intercourse
  • Transfers sperm to female reproductive tract
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31
Q

What are the parts of the penis?

A
  • Glans penis – enlarged tip
  • Shaft – main component
  • Foreskin – surrounds and protects the glans penis
  • Both sperm and urine exit the body via a tube in the penis called the urethra
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32
Q

Describe an erection:

A
  • Flow of blood to spongy tissue of penis during sexual arousal
  • Erectile tissue expands
  • Veins carrying blood away from penis are compressed - more blood is trapped
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33
Q

What is sperm?

A
  • Sperm production is called “spermatogenesis”
  • Each testis can produce 100 million sperm/day
  • Tadpole-shaped structure 0.06 mm long
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34
Q

What are the parts of sperm?

A
  • Head – contains nucleus with 23 chromosomes
    • Acrosome – cap of head – contains enzymes to penetrate egg
    • Mid-piece (body) – contains mitochondria
    • Tail – propels sperm forward
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35
Q

Describe spermatogenesis:

A
  • Sperm develop from specialized cells (spermatogonium) in the testes
  • Meiosis I forms two haploid secondary spermatocytes
  • Meiosis II forms four spermatids (haploid)
  • Developing sperm cells are nourished by Sertoli cells in the seminiferous tubules
  • Immature sperm are transferred to the epididymis (a duct on the testes)
  • Sperm mature and become motile in the epididymis
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36
Q

Describe sperm release?

A
  • When ejaculation occurs, sperm travels from the epididymis to the ductus deferens (vas deferens), which carries sperm to the penis
  • Sperm travels out of the penis via the urethra
  • Muscle contractions help to expel the semen
  • Sperm is carried in a supportive fluid called seminal fluid
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37
Q

What is seminal fluid?

A

What is seminal fluid?- A mixture of fluids from the following glands that help to carry and nourish the sperm
- Seminal vesicle – produces mucous-like fluid containing fructose (helps to give the sperm energy)
- Prostate gland and Cowper’s (bulbourethral) gland – secrete mucous-like fluids that contain alkaline materials (neutralizes acids in the vagina)

38
Q

Describe how sex determination works:

A
  • Androgens (male sex hormones) are triggered for release in an XY fetus
  • A gene on the Y chromosome causes embryonic glands to develop as testes and secrete testosterone
  • Testosterone causes pre-natal development of male genitalia and both sperm production and development of male secondary sex characteristics during puberty
  • Male babies are born with a penis and testes (testes descend from abdomen shortly after birth) but cannot fertilize eggs until puberty
39
Q

Describe male puberty:

A
  • Puberty begins at age 10-13 for males
  • Hypothalamus increases production of gonadotropic releasing hormone (GnRH)
  • GnRH causes anterior pituitary to release follicle stimulation hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
    FSH and LH stimulate sperm production and testosterone release from testes
  • Testosterone stimulates development of sex organs and secondary sex characteristics
40
Q

Describe regulation in the adult male - sperm production:

A
  • GnRH triggers release of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary
  • FSH causes cells in testes to produce sperm, also causes seminiferous tubules to release inhibin
  • Inhibin acts on anterior pituitary to inhibit FSH
  • A decrease in FSH means less inhibin will be released
  • Negative feedback cycle continues to make sure sperm production is constant over time
41
Q

Describe regulation in the adult male - secondary sex characteristics:

A
  • GnRH stimulates release of LH from anterior pituitary
  • LH stimulates testes to release testosterone
  • Testosterone promotes secondary sex characteristics (eg. Muscle development)
  • Testosterone also inhibits LH release
  • Negative feedback cycle keeps testosterone levels constant
42
Q

What is andropause?

A
  • A decrease in testosterone beginning around age 40
  • Can cause fatigue, depression, muscle and bone loss, drop in sperm production
43
Q

Describe fertilization:

A
  • Occurs in the oviduct
  • Egg takes about 4 days to travel down oviduct to uterus
  • Fertilization must occur within 12-24 hours of release from ovary
  • The successful sperm must therefore navigate the vagina —> cervix —> uterus —> most of the oviduct
44
Q

Describe the process of fertilization:

A
  • Multiple sperm reach the egg
  • Egg coating consists of outer corona radiata and the thicker zona pellucida
  • When sperm hit corona radiata, acrosomes release enzymatic contents
  • Enzymes begin to break down the zona pellucida, sperm keep pushing at egg
  • Hundreds of sperm may be required to clear one path to egg
45
Q

What happens when one sperm gets into the egg?

A
  • Egg membrane changes (depolarizes) (so no more sperm can bind to it)
  • Sperm head collapses, and sperm nucleus fuses with egg nucleus (within 12 h)
  • Resulting single cell with 46 chromosomes is called a zygote
  • Takes several days to get to uterus but begins to divide while in oviduct
46
Q

Describe cleavage:

A
  • Zygote begins to divide within 30 hours of fertilization
  • Cells division occurs quickly with little time for growth, as a result zygote remains same size, just made of many small cells instead of one big one
  • Division without overall growth is cleavage
47
Q

Describe morula:

A
  • When zygote is 16 cells, becomes morula
  • Morula enters uterus 3-5 days after fertilization
  • Begins to fill with fluid from uterus – allows two groups of cells to form
48
Q

What is a blastocyst?

A
  • When two groups of cells have formed
  • Hollow structure
  • Outer layer of cells is trophoblast
    • Goes on to form chorion then placenta
  • Inner is inner cell mass (embryoblast)
    • Goes on to form embryo
49
Q

Describe implantation:

A
  • Occurs around 10th to 14th day
  • Trophoblast secretes enzyme to break down part of endometrium
  • Blastocyst settles in to endometrium
  • Woman is now officially pregnant
  • Trophoblast starts to secrete hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)
50
Q

Describe hormone regulation through pregnancy:

A
  • hCG secretion continues for two months to maintain CL
  • CL remains for pregnancy but placenta secretes most of estrogen and progesterone after first trimester
51
Q

Describe gastrulation:

A
  • Process of forming the primary germ layers of the embryo
    1. Space forms between inner cell mass and trophoblast – forms amniotic cavity
    2. Inner cell mass flattens into disk-like structure – embryonic disk (short stalk connects embryonic disk to endometrium)
    3. Two layers form in embryonic disk (ectoderm —> outer layer, endoderm —> inner layer)
    4. Third layer forms, mesoderm —> middle layer
  • Ectoderm is closest to amnion, endoderm is closest to yolk sac
  • All future body tissues are derived from these three germ layers
52
Q

When can a fetus be called an embryo?

A

Once the 3 layers are formed by gastrulation, it is now called an embryo

53
Q

How do identical twins happen?

A

Cell mass separates into two separate embryos before undergoing gastrulation

54
Q

How do conjoined twins happen?

A

The inner cells mass did not completely separate

55
Q

What does the ectoderm give rise to?

A
  • Outside structure and the nervous system
  • Epidermis
  • Nervous tissue and sense organs
  • Pituitary gland
  • Adrenal medulla
  • Tooth enamel
  • Eye lens
56
Q

What does the mesoderm give rise to?

A
  • Stuff that never sees the outside world
  • Dermis
  • Lining of blood vessels and body cavities
  • Muscle
  • Connective tissue
  • Adrenal cortex
  • Heart
  • Kidneys
  • Internal reproductive organs
  • Spleen
57
Q

What does the endoderm give rise to?

A
  • Stuff that sees the outside world
  • Lining of digestive and respiratory tract
  • Liver
  • Gallbladder
  • Pancreas
  • Thymus
  • Tonsils
  • Parathyroid and thyroid
58
Q

Describe morphogenesis:

A
  • Events that form distinct structures in organism
  • Depends on differentiation – cellular process that allows cells to take on specific shapes and functions
59
Q

What happens at three weeks?

A
  • A thick band of mesoderm cells along what will be babies back form notochord - forms basis for skeleton
  • Nervous system (will form brain and spinal chord)
  • Neuralization - process of forming neural tube
  • Heart forms - begins to beat about day 18
  • Gastrulation forms the gut
60
Q

Neurulation/ Organ Formation
Week 4:

A
  • Blood cells form and fill blood vessels
  • Head visible
  • Lungs and kidneys start to form
61
Q

Neurulation/ Organ Formation
Week 5:

A
  • Head very large compared to body
  • Eyes open but don’t have lids or irises
62
Q

Neurulation/ Organ Formation
Week 6:

A
  • Brain developing rapidly
  • Limbs are starting to lengthen
  • Gonads producing hormones – influencing genaltalia
  • Face, arms, legs, toes, fingers,internal organs, touch, movement, placental secretions, at seven weeks the sex is evident
63
Q

Neurulation/ Organ Formation
Week 7:

A
  • Organs formed
  • Nervous system coordinating body activity
  • Cartilage skeleton
  • Lids over eyes
  • Resembles human
64
Q

Neurulation/ Organ Formation
Week 8:

A
  • 90% of organs developed
  • Moving from embryo to fetus stage
  • About the size and mass of a paper clip
65
Q

Describe the estra-embryonic membranes:

A
  • Protection, respiration, nutrition, excretion
  • Allantois – foundation for umbillical cord
  • Amnion – transparent sac that develops to completely envelop embryo
  • Chorion – outer membrane —> forms placenta
  • Yolk sac – produces blood cells and parts of organ systems (no nutritional function)
  • Support structure
66
Q

Describe the placenta:

A
  • Projections from chorion extend to uterine lining in 2nd week
  • These projections (chorionic villi) become placenta
  • Placenta is disk-shaped organ, well-vascularized, “connects” baby to mother
  • Support structure
67
Q

Describe the “Connection” of Placenta to Uterus:

A
  • Placenta sits in blood pools from mother in uterine lining
  • Blood pools serve as connection between mother and baby
  • Nutrient and waste exchange takes place here
68
Q

Describe the umbilical cord:

A
  • Rope-like structure that connects navel area of fetus to placenta
  • Contains two arteries – carry blood away from the fetus (oxygen poor)
  • Contains one vein – carries oxygen rich blood from mother to fetus
69
Q

What is the difference between an embryo and fetus?

A
  • In embryo organs are still forming
  • In fetus, organs are formed, just need to develop
  • Baby becomes a fetus at eight weeks
70
Q

Describe the first Trimester: weeks 1-12

A
  • Learned about first eight weeks (embryo development)
  • During next 4 weeks, body grows rapidly, growth of head slows
  • Cartilage begins to harden to bone
  • By end of 1st trimester, sex of baby is apparent
71
Q

Describe the second Trimester: Weeks 13-24

A
  • Bones form
  • Brain grows rapidly - nervous system starts to function
  • Mother begins to feel movement
  • Fifth month - Fetus becomes covered in hair (and oil) to protect skin
  • Sixth month- baby appears skinny, hairy and wrinkled (little fat)
  • Baby born at 24 weeks would have difficult surviving
72
Q

Describe the third trimester: weeks 25-38

A
  • Fetal brain continues rapid development
  • Digestive and respiratory systems mature last
  • Maternal nutrition is extremely important during this time
73
Q

Describe teratogens:

A
  • Substances that interfere with normal development resulting in structural abnormalities
  • Includes:
    • Infectious agents (rubella, cytomegalovirus, varicella, herpes simplex, toxoplasma, syphilis, etc)
    • Physical agents (ionizing agents, hyperthermia)
    • Material health factors (diabetes, maternal PKU)
  • When the structure is encountered and the dose of the substance will influence the damage done
74
Q

Define parturition:

A

Birth

75
Q

Define labour:

A

Events associated with parturition

76
Q

Define lactation:

A

Secretion and formation of breast milk

77
Q

Describe Parturition Onset/ Maintenance:

A
  • Uterine contractions during pregnancy are normal
  • Stretching of cervix signals oxytocin release from posterior pituitary
  • Oxytocin stimulates uterine muscles to contract (directly and through prostoglandins)
  • Uterine contractions push the head against the cervix, stretch it more, more oxytocin relased
  • Positive feedback cycle
78
Q

What are the three stages of parturition?

A
  • Dilation
    -Contractions and stretching cause cervix to open (dilate)
    -Lasts 2 to 20 hours
  • Expulsion
    • Baby moves through the birth canal
    • Pushed by forceful contractions
    • Lasts 0.5 to 2 hrs
  • Placental
    • Placenta and umbilical cord (afterbirth) are expelled
      -10-15 minutes after baby born
79
Q

Describe prolactin:

A
  • Stimulates milk production
  • Hormone needed for milk production
  • Secreted from anterior pituitary
  • Suppressed by high levels of estrogen and progesterone during pregnancy
  • Secretion begins after birth
80
Q

Describe milk secretion:

A
  • Suckling stimulates nerve endings in nipples and areola (area around nipple)
  • Hypothalamus is stimulated
  • Posterior pituitary is signalled to release oxytocin
  • Lobules in breast are stimulated to contract
  • Alveoli in lobules contain milk – are squeezed and milk flows into ducts
81
Q

What does oxytocin do?

A
  • Stimulates milk release (AKA milk let down) from breasts –> positive feedback
82
Q

Describe suckling and milk production:

A
  • The more suckling, the more milk produced
  • If suckling stops, milk production stops
  • If suckling continues, milk production continues (sometimes for several years)
83
Q

Describe colostrum:

A
  • First secretions from nipples right after birth
  • Yellowish fluid
  • Important source of antibodies for baby (important to get baby colostrum right after birth)
84
Q

What are the types of contraception?

A
  • Barrier
  • Hormonal
  • Post fertilization
  • Surgery
85
Q

Describe male infertility:

A
  • Low sperm count
  • Low testosterone levels and/pr FSH levels
  • Poor sperm motility
  • Absence/malformation of reproductive structure
86
Q

Describe female infertility:

A
  • Failure to ovulate
  • Blockage of reproductive tract
  • Repeated miscarriages
  • Absence/malformation of part of reproductive tract
  • Hormone imbalance
87
Q

Describe artificial insemination:

A
  • Man donates sperm
  • Sperm is concentrated
    Types:
    1. IUI - intrauterine insemination
    • Uses catheter to deposit sperm into
      1. Intravaginal (at home procedure using a syringe)
    • Sperm is inserted into a women’s vagina
88
Q

Describe in-vitro fertilization:

A
  • Used in conjunction with Hormone therapy and Superovulation
  • Hormones are given to stimulate the ovaries to produce numerous mature follicles
  • Eggs are extracted surgically or via transvaginal ultrasound (ultrasound, probe, needle, aspirate, follicles)
  • Sperm are donated (by father or unknown man)
  • Egg and sperm and put into test tube/petri dish and will be stimulated to fertilize
  • Zygote forms, undergoes cleavage, and is inserted via a catheter through the opening of the cervix
89
Q

Describe surrogacy:

A
  • Used when female has fertility problems
    • Ex: can’t produce eggs
    • Ex: has had a hysterectomy (no uterus)
    • Ex: can’t carry the fetus for other medical reasons
      • Mother and father each donate egg & sperm
        IVF
      • Embryo trasfer to surrogate mother
  • Many controversial issues are associated with this
90
Q

How can doctors tell if a fetus has a disorder?

A
  1. Chorionic Villi Sampling – can happen early
  2. Amniocentesis – 2nd trimester
    • Spina bifida detection
  3. karyotyping
    • Trisomy
      • (down symdrome)
    • Monosomy
91
Q

Who has fetal diagnostic test done?

A
  • Pregnant mother over the age of 35
    • Higher incidence of non-disjunction during meiosis
    • Women are waiting to become pregnant to have their careers established
    • Technology has evolved so that women this age can have babies.
  • People who have a family history if genetics diseases in their families (Tay Sachs, etc)

Biology 30 (7 decks)

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