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MCAT - Biology > Reproduction > Flashcards

Reproduction Flashcards

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1
Q

What are diploids cells?

A

Autosomal cells that contains 2 copies of each chromosome

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1
Q

What are haploids cells?

A

Contains 1 copy of each chromosome

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2
Q

How many chromosomes a human has?

A

46, 23 from each parents

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3
Q

What are the 4 stages of cell cycle?

A

G1, S, G2 and M. (G1, S and G2 are called the interphase)

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4
Q

What is the interphase?

A

The phases of G1, S and G2 combined

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5
Q

Where are cells who do not divide?

A

In an offshoot go G1, called G0

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6
Q

What are cells doing in G0?

A

Carrying out their functions without any preparation for division

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7
Q

During the interphase, how are DNA stored as?

A

Chromatin, a less condensed form of genetic material

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8
Q

Why is the DNA stored as chromatin during interphase?

A

So the DNA is available for RNA polymerase to transcript genes

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9
Q

During mitosis, how is DNA stored are? Why?

A

Tightly coiled chromosomes
So that no genetic material is lost during cell division

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10
Q

What is happening in the first stage of interphase?

A

G1, cells create organelles for energy and protein production (mitochondria, ribosomes and endoplasmic retinaculum), while also increasing their size

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11
Q

What is the other name for G1

A

Presynthetic gap

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12
Q

What can one pass into the S (synthesis) phase?

A

By meeting certain criteria which is governed by the restriction point

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13
Q

What is the restriction point?

A

The point where cells must meet criteria to pass from G1 to S

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14
Q

What happens in the S phase?

A

Replication of genetic material, so the 2 daughter cells receive identical copies.
End result: each chromosome has 2 identical chromatids bound together by centromeres

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15
Q

What is the ratio of DNA from cells in G1 to G2

A

G2 cells has twice DNA as G1 cells

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16
Q

Does the ploidy of the cell changes after the replication of the genetic material?

A

No, even if a human would have 92 chromatids, there are still 46 chromosomes

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17
Q

What is the other name for G2 stage?

A

Postsynthetic gap

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18
Q

What happens in G2 stage?

A

The cell undergo another quality control checkpoint.
Make sure there is enough organelles and cytoplasm for 2 cells.
Also checks if the DNA has been replicated correctly

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19
Q

What is the M phase?

A

Mitosis and cytokinesis

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20
Q

What are the stages of mitosis?

A

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase

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21
Q

What is cytokinesis?

A

The splitting of the cytoplasm and the organelles between the 2 daughter cells

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22
Q

What is the main protein in control of the control of the cell cycle specifically at both checkpoints?

A

p53

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23
Q

What happens if the cells doesn’t undergo the criteria at the restriction point?

A

The cell cycle goes into arrest until the DNA has been prepared

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24
Q

What are the molecules responsible for the cell cycle?

A

Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK)

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25
Q

How can CDK be activated?

A

With the presence of the right cyclins

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26
Q

What happens to the concentration of cyclins during the cell cycle?

A

It increases and decreases during specific stages

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27
Q

What happens when the right cyclins bind to CDK?

A

It creates an activated CDK-cyclin complex, which then phosphorylate transcription factors

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28
Q

What transcription factors do once phosphorylate?

A

Promotes transcription of genes requires for the next stage of the cell cycle

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29
Q

What is the link between cell cycle control and cancer?

A

When cell cycle is deranged, damaged cell can undergo mitosis

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30
Q

What is the most common mutation found in cancer?

A

Mutation of the TP53, the gene that produce p53. The cell cycle is not stopped when the DNA is damages, so the mutations accumulate

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31
Q

What is the definition of the process of a tumor?

A

When a cell undergo rapid cell division

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32
Q

How can a tutor reach other tissue?

A

If the cell begins to produce the right factors (such as proteases that can digest basement membranes of factors that encourage blood vessel formation)

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33
Q

What is the definition of a metastasis?

A

When the cancerous cells can invade and spread through the bloodstream or the lymphatic system

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34
Q

In which type of cells do mitosis occurs?

A

Cells that are not involved in sexual reproduction

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35
Q

What are cells that are not involved in sexual reproduction called?

A

Somatic cells

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36
Q

What happens during the prophase?

A

The chromatin is condensed into chromosomes.
The centrioles separate and move towards opposites poles of the cell.
After migration, they will start to form spindle fibers (made of microtubule)
The nuclear membrane dissolves

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37
Q

What are spindle fibers made of?

A

Microtubules

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38
Q

What are asters?

A

A formation of microtubules that anchor the centriole to the cell membrane

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39
Q

Why does the nuclear membrane dissolves in the prophase?

A

In order for the spindle fibers to reach the chromosomes

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40
Q

What happens to the nucleoli in the prophase?

A

In becomes less distinct and sometimes may disappear completely

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41
Q

What are kinetochores?

A

Protein structures located on the centromere that serve as attachment point for specific fibers of the spindle apparatus (kinetochores fibers)

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42
Q

How many centrioles is there in a centrosome?

A

2

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43
Q

What is responsible for proper movement of the chromosomes during mitosis?

A

Centrioles

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44
Q

What happens in metaphase?

A

The kinetochores fibers interact with the fibers of the spindle apparatus to align the chromosomes at the metaphase plate (equatorial plate)

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45
Q

What is the metaphase plate? And what other name could it have?

A

The equatorial plate
Is the lign where it is equidistant from the 2 poles of the cell

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46
Q

What happens in anaphase?

A

Each centromere split allowing for 2 sister chromatids to separate from each chromosome.
They are then pulled towards opposite poles of the cells by the shortening of the kinetochores fibers

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47
Q

What makes the cells pulled towards opposite poles during mitosis?

A

The shortening of the kinetochores fibers

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48
Q

What happens in telophase?

A

It’s like the reverse of prophase:
Spindle apparatus disappears
Nuclear membrane reformes around each of the chromosomes
Nucleoli reappear

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49
Q

What happens during cytokinesis?

A

Separation of cytoplasm and organelles in order for each daughter cell to have enough material to survive on its own

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50
Q

In which cells do meiosis occurs?

A

Gametocytes (germ cells)

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51
Q

What is the result of mitosis?

A

2 identical daughter cells

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52
Q

What is the result of meiosis?

A

4 non-identical sex cells

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53
Q

What is the main difference in the process of mitosis and meiosis?

A

Meiosis needs 2 rounds of divisions

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54
Q

What are the 2 rounds of divisions in meiosis?

A

The first one (Meiosis 1) creates 2 haploid cells by the separation of homologous chromosomes.
The second one (Meiosis 2) creates 2 cells out of each haploid cells without a change in ploidy

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55
Q

What type of division is Meiosis 1?

A

Reductional division, because there is a change in ploidy (from diploid to haploid cells)

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56
Q

What type of division is Meiosis 2?

A

Equational division, because there is no. change in ploidy

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57
Q

What happens in Prophase 1? (similarly and differently from prophase in mitosis)

A

Similarly: Chromatin condensed into chromosomes, the nuclear membrane disappears, the spindle apparatus forms
Differences: Synapsis and crossing over

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58
Q

What is the synapsis?

A

When 2 homologous chromosomes comes together and forms a tetrad in which homologous chromosomes are held together by a group of proteins (synaptonemal complex) and where it can form a chiasma and process in a crossing over

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59
Q

What is the name of the group of proteins that holds together the tetrad?

A

Synaptonemal complex

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60
Q

What is the chiasma?

A

The point of contact of 2 homologous chromosomes, where they can exchange equivalent pieces of DNA

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61
Q

What is the name of the process of exchange equivalent pieces of DNA at the chiasma?

A

Crossing over

62
Q

How can crossing over be characterized?

A

By the number of events that occurs in one strand (by single or double-crossovers)

63
Q

What is the definition of linkage?

A

The tendency for genes to be inherited together.
Genes that are located farther from each other are less likely to be inherited together

64
Q

What is an advantage of crossing over in linkage?

A

Can unlink linked genes, thus increasing variety of genetic combinations
It is also believed to increase the ability of a specie to evolve and adapt to a changing environment

65
Q

What law is explained by crossing over?

A

Mendel’s second law (of independent assortment)

66
Q

What happens in metaphase 1? (similarly and differently from mitosis)

A

Similar: Homologous pairs aligne at the metaphase plate and are each attached to a separate spindle fibre by its kinetochore
Different: Each chromosome is lined up by only one spindle fibre (not 2 from each poles like in mitosis)

67
Q

What happens in anaphase 1?

A

Homologous pairs are separated and pulled to opposite poles of the cell (process called disjunction)

68
Q

What is disjunction?

A

Where homologous pairs are separated and pulled to opposite poles of the cell in anaphase 1

69
Q

What law accounts for the process of disjunction?

A

Mendel’s first law (of segregation)

70
Q

What is segregation?

A

The separation of 2 homologous chromosomes

71
Q

What happens in telophase 1?

A

Nuclear membrane forms around each nucleus

72
Q

What happens after telophase 1?

A

Cytokinesis (division in 2 daughter cells)

73
Q

What in interkinesis?

A

A short rest period between cytokinesis and meiosis 2 in which the chromosomes partially uncoil

74
Q

What is the difference between mitosis and meiosis 2?

A

Meiosis consist of sister chromatids to separate from each other (rather that homologues like in mitosis)

75
Q

What is the end result of Meiosis 1?

A

2 haploids cells

76
Q

How is the biological sex determined?

A

By the 23rd pair of chormosomes

77
Q

How would you termed a male because it has only one copy of each gene in the X-chormosome

A

Hemizygous

78
Q

What is the disadvantage for males to being hemizygous?

A

Since all the genes in the X-Chromosome have only one copy, if there was a disease-causing allele, it will necessarily express that allele

79
Q

Do male or females express sex-linked diseases?

A

Male, because most of them diseases are recessively inherited

80
Q

How do you call a female carrying a disease allele but not exhibiting the disease?

A

Carriers

81
Q

What is the difference between the amount of genetic information between X and Y chromosomes?

A

X chromosomes carries a much bigger amount of genetic information

82
Q

What is the role of the SRY gene and what it is?

A

Sex-determining region Y
This gene codes for a transcription factor that initiates testis differentiation and the formation of male gonads

83
Q

What are the 2 functional components of the testes?

A

The seminiferous tubules and the interstitial cells of Leydig

84
Q

What are the main functions of the 2 functional components of the testes?

A

Sperm are produced in the seminiferous tubules
Interstitial cells of Leydig secrete testosteron and other male sex hormones (androgens)

85
Q

How are sperm nourished in the seminiferous tubules?

A

By the sertoli cells

86
Q

Where are testes located?

A

In the scrotum, an external pouch below the penis

87
Q

Why is the scrotum below the penis?

A

This position helps it maintain it’s optimal temperature of 2 to 4 degrees lower than the body’s temperature

88
Q

What is the function of the layer of muscle around the vas deferens (ductus deferent)

A

Rise or lower the testes to maintain proper temperature for sperm development

89
Q

What happens in the epididymis?

A

The sperm flagella’s gain motility

90
Q

What is the sperm route?

A

The are produced in the testes (seminiferous tubules) and are then passed to the epididymis to gain their flagella’s motility and they are then stored until ejaculation.
During ejaculation, they passe through the vas deferent and enter the ejaculatory duct. The two ejaculatory ducts then fuse to form the urethra

91
Q

What are sperm mixed with to pass through the reproductive tract?

A

Seminal fluis

92
Q

By what is seminal fluid form?

A

Seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral (Cowper’s) gland

93
Q

What is the contribution of each of the creators of the seminal fluid?

A

Seminal vesicles: fructose to nourish sperm
Seminal vesicles + prostate glands: gives the mildly alkaline properties of the fluid
Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands: creates clear viscous fluid that cleans out any remnants of urine and lubricate the urethra during sexual arousal

94
Q

What is the use of a mildly alkaline fluid for the seminal fluid?

A

So the sperm can survive in the relative acidity of the female reproductive tract

95
Q

What is the mixture of sperm + seminal fluid called?

A

Semen

96
Q

Where does spermatogenesis occurs?

A

In the seminiferous tubules

97
Q

What are the names of each type of cells during spermatogenesis?

A

Diploid stem cells: spermatogonia
After S stage: Diploid primary spermatocytes
After Meiosis 1: haploid secondary spermatocytes
After Meiosis 2: haploid spermatids
Maturation: Spermatozoa

98
Q

What are the components/parts of a spermatozoa?

A

A head, a midpiece and a flagellum

99
Q

What are the functions of each part of the spermatozoa?

A

The head contains the genetic information
The midpiece is filled with mitochondria (generates ATP from fructose)
Flagellum: motility
Acrosome: Necessary to penetrate the ovum

100
Q

What is an acrosome?

A

The cap covering the sperm head

101
Q

What is the acrosome made from?

A

Derived from the Golgi apparatus

102
Q

Can a male create more sperm after his puberty?

A

Yes, once a male reaches sexual maturity, it produce approx 3 million sperm per day for the rest of his life

103
Q

What produces estrogen and progesterone?

A

Ovaries

104
Q

What are the follicules?

A

Multilayered sacs that contains, nourish and protect immature ova

105
Q

Where does an egg passes once it is ovulated?

A

First into the peritoneal sac.
Then drawn into the Fallopian tube (or oviduct)
Then the uterus

106
Q

What propel the egg forward in the oviduct (Fallopian tube)?

A

Cilia

107
Q

Where is the site of fetal development?

A

Uterus

108
Q

What is called the external female anatomy?

A

Vulva

109
Q

From interior to exterior, what are the female reproductive system anatomy?

A

Follicules, ovaries, peritoneal sac, fallopian tubes (oviduct), uterus, cervix, vaginal canal, vulva

110
Q

What is the name of production of female gametes?

A

oogenenis

111
Q

What is the difference between the supply in male and females?

A

Females have no unending supply of stem cells. All the oogonia a female will ever have are formed during fetal development

112
Q

What is the process of oogenesis?

A

By birth, all the oogonia have already undergone replication, they are arrested in prophase 1 (primary oocytes)
Once a woman reaches menarches (first period), one oocyte per month will undergo meiosis 1 producing a secondary oocyte and a polar body
The secondary oocyte remains arrested in metaphase 2 until fertilization in which it can complete meiosis 2

113
Q

What is the process called creating the polar body?

A

Unequal cytokinesis

114
Q

What is unequal cytokinesis?

A

Process of giving all the cytoplasm needed for the daughter cell and nearly none to the other (which creates the polar body)

115
Q

What happens generally to the polar body?

A

Usually will not divide any further and will never produce functional gametes

116
Q

What are the 2 layers surrounding the oocytes?

A

Zona pellucida and Corona radiata

117
Q

What are the roles of the 2 layers surrounding the oocytes?

A

Zona pellucida surrounds the oocytes itself and protects the oocytes while also containing compounds necessary for sperm binding
Corona radiate is outside of the zona pellucida and is a layer of cells that adheres to the oocyte during ovulation

118
Q

What enzymes help the sperm cell to penetrate to oocyte?

A

Acrosomal enzymes

119
Q

What does the ovum contributes to for the zygote?

A

Nearly everything: half DNA, all of the cytoplasm, organelles, RNA

120
Q

What does the sperm contributes to for the zygote?

A

Half the DNA

121
Q

What is the process of hormonal control over the ability to reproduce in general

A

Before puberty, the hypothalamus restrict production of GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone)
At puberty, the restriction is lifter, the hypothalamus then release GnRH which then triggers the anterior pituitary gland to synthesize and release FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone)
FSH and LH trigger the production of other hormones that develop and maintain the reproductive system

122
Q

What is the process of hormonal control of sexual development in males?

A

During fetal period, the presence of Y-Chromosomes leads to production of androgens.
For infancy and childhood, androgen production is low.
During puberty, testosterone producing increase a lot and sperm production starts (with delicate interplay of FSH and LH on cells in the testes)
Testosterone production remains high during adulthood and decline as men age.

123
Q

What are the effect of FSH and LH on testes?

A

FSH stimulates Sertoli cells: triggers sperm maturation
LH causes interstitial cells to produce testosterone

124
Q

What are the effects of testosterone?

A

Develop and maintain male reproductive system + result in the development of the secondary sexual characteristics

125
Q

What are the secondary sexual characteristics?

A

Facial and axillary hair, deepening of the voice, increase muscle and bone mall

126
Q

What type of feedback exerts testosterone?

A

Negative feedback, it is kept in an appropriate range

127
Q

What is the hormonal role of sexual development in females?

A

Ovaries are controlled by the FSH and LH produced by the anterior pituitary.
The ovaries produces estrogen and progresterone

128
Q

What are the roles of estrogen?

A

Development and maintenance of the female reproductive system and females secondary sexual characteristics
In the embryo: development of the reproductive tract
In adults: thickening of the lining of the uterus (endometrium) each month

129
Q

What are females secondary sexual characteristics?

A

Breast growth, widening of the hips, changes in fat distribution

130
Q

What is the lining of the uterus?

A

Endometrium

131
Q

What is the role of estrogen in regards to the endometrium?

A

Lead to its thickening every months in preparation for the implantation of a zygote

132
Q

Which part secretes progesterone?

A

Corpus luteum

133
Q

What is the corpus luteum?

A

The remains of the ovarian follicle following ovulation

134
Q

What are the roles of progesterone?

A

Development and maintenance of the endometrium (but not its initial thickening)

135
Q

Why does both estrogen and progesterone are needed to be able to support a zygote?

A

Between they both work on the endometrium
The estrogen does the thickening at each month
Progesterone develops and maintains the endometrium

136
Q

What happens when the corpus luteum atrophies and ceases to function during pregnancy?

A

Progesterone is supplies by the placenta

137
Q

When does the corpus luteum atrophies during pregnancy?

A

By the end of the first semester

138
Q

What are the reproductive years of a female?

A

From menarche to menopause

139
Q

What is the cycle name for the rise and fall of estrogen and progesterone levels in a cyclic pattern?

A

Menstrual cycle

140
Q

What are the phases of menstrual cycle

A

Follicular phase
Ovulation
Luteal phase
Menstruation

141
Q

What happens in the follicular phase?

A

GnRH from the hypothalamus increases (in response to lower estrogen and progesterone levels). Which leads to FSH and LH secretion.
They both work together to develop several ovarian follicles.
The follicles produces estrogen, which has a negative feedback on GnRh, FSH and LH

142
Q

When does the follicular phase starts?

A

When the menstrual flow begins

143
Q

What are the roles of estrogen during the follicular phase?

A

Stimulates regrowth of endometrial lining, stimulates vascularization and glandularization of the decidua

144
Q

What happens during ovulation?

A

Estrogen reaches a threshold that results in a positive feedback (GnRH, FSH and LH levels spike
The surge in LH induces ovulation

145
Q

What happens in the luteal phase?

A

LH causes the rupture follicle to form the corpus luteum which then secretes progesterone
Progesterone level rises, while estrogen level stays high
The high level of progesterone has a negative feedback on GnRh, FSH and LH, preventing the ovulation of multiple eggs

146
Q

What happens during menstruation?

A

Corpus luteum loses its stimulation from LH, progesterone levels decline and the uterine lining is sloughed off.
The loss of high level estrogen and progesterone removes the block on GnRh, so the next cycle can begin

147
Q

What happens if fertilization has occurred?

A

The zygote will develop into a blastocysts and will implant in the uterine lining and secrete human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) which maintains the corpus luteum
By the second trimester, the hCG levels decline.
The high levels of estrogen and progesterone continues to serve as negative feedback on GnRH secretion

148
Q

Why is the hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) so important in the first trimester?

A

It maintains the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone which keeps the uterine lining in place

149
Q

Why does hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) levels decline in the second trimester?

A

The placenta has grown to a sufficient size to secret enough progesterone and estrogen by itself

150
Q

What happens during menopause?

A

As woman ages, her ovaries become less sensitive to FSH and LH, which leads to ovarian atrophy
As estrogen and progesterone levels also drops, the endometrium atrophies and menstruation stops
The blood level of FSH and LH rise (because of the negative feedback of estrogen and progesterone)

151
Q

What physical and psychological changes usually accompany menopause?

A

Flushing, hot flashes, loading, headaches and irritability

152
Q

At what age menopause usually occurs?

A

Between 45 and 55

MCAT - Biology (12 decks)

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