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Physiology 1B > Reproduction > Flashcards

Reproduction Flashcards

1
Q

How is sex determined in humans?

A

Presence of SRY gene on y chromosome

Produces testes determining factor which results in testes

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2
Q

What are some sex chromosome abnormalities?

A

Turners syndrome- female phenotype by XO/no second sex chromosome
Klinefelters syndrome- male phenotype but some female characteristics, XXY chromosomes
Androgen insensitivity syndrome- inability to respond to androgens, male genotype but female phenotype

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3
Q

List the stuructures in the female reproductive system

A 
Uterine tube
Uterus
Ovaries
Cervix
Vagina
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4
Q

What are the functions of the ovary?

A

Gamete production

Hormone production

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5
Q

What is the importance of oestrus?

A

Occurs before ovulation so increases chance of successful fertilisation

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6
Q

Define oogenesis

A

Formation of ovum

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7
Q

What are the reproductive hormones secreted from the anterior pituitary?

A

FSH
LH
Prolactin

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8
Q

During follicle development what causes the switch from negative to positive feedback of oestrogen on hypothalamus hormones?

A

Prolonged oestrogen
Oestrogen acts on alpha and beta receptors
GnRH neurones have beta receptors which mediate negative feedback on tonic GnRH release
GnRH have no alpha receptors but intermediate neurones with alpha neurones synapse to GnRH increasing GnRH pulses

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9
Q

Where are oestrogen, progesterone and inhibin secreted from?

A

Ovaries

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10
Q

What hormone does the hypothalamus secrete?

A

GnRH

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11
Q

How are FSH and LH released and what triggers it?

A

Tonic or surge release

GnRH induces it

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12
Q

Describe the pulsatile release of GnRH in the follicular and luteal phases

A

Follicular phase- increased frequency of GnRH pulses increases FSH and LH. FSH promotes follicle development so increased oestrogen by follicle
Luteal phase- reduces frequency of GnRH pulses so fall in FSH and LH. Increased progesterone from corpus luteum

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13
Q

What are the effects of oestrogens in the female reproductive system?

A

Oviduct- increased secretions, cilia and muscle activity
Cervix- cervical muscle relaxes, thinner alkaline secretions
Mammary glands- primes glandular tissue
Uterus- increases myometrium activity, number and size of glands and watery secretion and induced synthesis of progesterone receptors

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14
Q

What are the effects of progesteragens in the female reproductive system?

A

Oviduct- reduced secretions, muscle activity and cilia
Cervix- firmer cervix, thick acidic secretions
Mammary glands- glandular tissue growth
Uterus- reduced myometrium activity, glandular growth, thick secretions

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15
Q

What is the main hormonal control of the female reproductive system and how does it change?

A

FSH and LH

Prolactin switches it to progesterone

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16
Q

Explain how ovulation takes place

A

LH surge induces protease and collagenous activity in follicles
Increase in follicular activity
Granulosa cell layer thins
Stigma forms then ruptures releasing oocyte

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17
Q

How does the oocyte move down the uterine tube?

A

Ampulla- cilia

Isthmus- muscular contractions

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18
Q

What lines the uterine tube?

A

Ciliated and secretory epithelium

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19
Q

Where is the oocyte held until fertilisation and how does this happen?

A

At the ampulla isthmus junction by a physiological sphincter which only opens at high progesterone

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20
Q

How does the corpus luteum form?

A

Follicle collapses after ovulation
Granulosa and theca interna cells form the corpus luteum
Blood vessels invade theca
Cells switch to progesterone synthesising by two cell hypothesis
Cells stop dividing and undergo luteinisation to transform to lutein cells

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21
Q

Why is luteolysis needed?

A

When no pregnancy to allow another follicular phase to occur by reducing levels of progesterone

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22
Q

List the components of the male reproductive system

A 
Testes
Epididymis
Ductus deferens
Urethra
Seminal vesicles
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral glands
Penis
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23
Q

What are the functions of the testes?

A

Hormone production

Sperm production

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24
Q

Define spermatogenesis

A

Development of sperm cells

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25
Q

Where does spermatogenesis take place?

A

Seminiferous tubules with steroli cells providing nourishment

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26
Q

What is the purpose of the blood testes barrier in spermatogeneses?

A

Mitosis occurs below and meiosis occurs above junction so the sperm are protected from the immune system
Allows different seminiferous tubular fluid environments for late stages of spermatogenesis

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27
Q

How does sperm move through the epididymis?

A

Cilia and contraction of smooth muscle, sensitive to oxytocin

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28
Q

What are the functions of the epididymis?

A

Mature sperm to make motile and fertile
Concentrate sperm
Store in tail for release
Phagocytose in times of abstinence

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29
Q

Define spermeogenesis

A

Non-motile round cells converting to motile cells

30
Q

What takes place in spermeogenesis?

A

Condensation of nucleus
Acrosome formation
Flagellogenesis

31
Q

What is the morphology of sperm?

A

Head- highly condensed chromatin covered in acrosomal cap
Midpiece- mitochondria spiral
Tail- 9+2 microtubule arrangement responsible for motility

32
Q

How does sperm have motility?

A

Motor protein dynein attach to adjactent microtubules with Ca2+ dependent ATPase activity
ATP hydrolysis causes microtubules to slide past each other causing flagella to bend
Sequential activation generates wave of bending

33
Q

How long do spermatogenesis cycles take?

A

64 days

34
Q

What secretes testosterone?

A

Leydig cells in seminiferous tubules interstitium

35
Q

How is testosterone mainly found in plasma?

A

Bound to albumin or sex hormone binding protein

36
Q

What are the roles of hormones in spermatogenesis?

A

Androgen binding protein is in adluminal space
Testosterone alone is not enough for spermatogenesis
GnRH releases FSH
FSH acts on steroli cells and binds to androgen binding protein
Spermatogenesis increased
Vitamin A also aids the process

37
Q

What are the effects of testosterone?

A 
Testes development and descent
Genital tract development
Enlarging genital tract 
Libido
Masculine behaviour
Secondary sexual characteristics
Maintain sexual activity
Spermatogenesis
38
Q

How does sperm travel along the ductus deferens?

A

Muscular contractions

39
Q

What is the components of seminal fluid?

A 
High fructose concentration
Buffer
Glycoprotiens to coat sperm head
Coagulants to plug further sperm penetration
Leukocytes
40
Q

Describe how errection happens

A

Parasympathetic reflex response dilates arteries
Veins get compressed
Penis becomes turgid

41
Q

What arteries are involved in errection?

A

Helicine artery, branches of main artery

42
Q

What substances/molecules causes dilation of helicine artery in erection?

A

Acetylcholine
Vasoactive peptide
Nitrous oxide

43
Q

Describe how seminal emission happens

A

Sympathetic outflow to epididymis tail, ductus deferens and accessory glands increase
Contents get expelled into pelvic urethra
Stimulates for ejaculation

44
Q

How does ejaculation take place?

A

Rhythmic contractions of urethra under somatic control causes ejaculation

45
Q

What causes uneven mixing of semen?

A

Emission and ejaculation overlap

46
Q

How do cervical secretions vary under oestrogens and progesterone?

A

Oestrogen- water alkaline fluid so hospitable to sperm

Progesterone- thick, acidic, impermeable secretions

47
Q

How does sperm move into the uterus from the vagina and once in the vagina?

A

Uterine muscular contractions causing negative pressure pulling
Then move by own propulsion aided by current of fluid by uterine cilia

48
Q

How do sperm move alone uterine tube?

A

Swim to isthmus ampullary junction attracted by chemical from oocyte

49
Q

How does capacitation happen and why is it important?

A

Exposure of sperm to female reproductive tract changes sperm membrane to enable acrosome reaction and activate tail for whiplash motions
Needed for fertilisation

50
Q

How is the corpus luteum lifespan increased to extend past the time it takes for implantation?

A

Unimplanted embryo extends by producing HCG that prevent luteolysis until placenta is established the life to maintain progesterone levels

51
Q

What are the endometrium requirements for implantation?

A

Primed by oestrogens to thicken lining

High progesterone to limit contractions

52
Q

What are the hormones produced by the placenta?

A

HCG- prolongs corpus luteum lifespan
Oestrogen- stimulates uterine growth and development
Progesterone- stabilises uterus
Human placental lactogen- growth hormone like activity

53
Q

What are the changes that happen to the human body in pregnancy?

A

Uterus expands x1000
Blood volume, heart workload and kidney filtering increases
Average weight gain 10-15kg

54
Q

What are the stages of labour?

A

Stage 1-uterine contractions, foetus positions, cervix dilates and softens
Stage 2- foetus expelled, uterus sensitive to oxytocin
Stage 3- placenta expelled, uterus contracts to prevent blood loss

55
Q

What is needed for parturition to take place?

A

Softened cervix

Coordinated contractions of myometrium

56
Q

What stimulates lactation?

A

Sudden decline in oestrogen, progesterone

Increased prolactin by suckling

57
Q

Describe the structure of mammary glands

A

Glandular tissue arranged in alveoli and clusters

Milk secreting cells are single epithelial layer surrounded by myoepithelial cells to contract for secretion

58
Q

What initiates milk ejection reflex?

A

Suckling

59
Q

How is milk production and excretion maintained?

A

Production- prolactin and suckling

Excretion- oxytocin or conditioned relflex without stimulation

60
Q

What is the ideal contraceptive?

A 
100% effective
Safe
Effective
Reversible
No side effects
Easy to use
61
Q

How do hormonal contraceptives work?

A

Target negative feedback of hypothalamic pituitary ovarian axis

62
Q

Why can lactational amenorrhea happen?

A

Suckling supresses follicular development as it disrupts pulsatile GnRH so there is no LH surge interfering with corpus luteum

63
Q

How does the combined pill work?

A

Negative feedback on gonadotrophs so inhibit production of LH and FSH so ovulation inhibited

64
Q

How does progesterone pill work?

A

Cervical mucus stays hostile

65
Q

What are the main causes of infertility?

A 
Declines after 35 years old
Female tract disorders
Ovulation disorders
Poor sperm quality
unexplained
66
Q

What are the dangers of assistive fertility techniques?

A

Multiple babies
Ovarian hyperstimulation
Low birth weights
Congenital abnormalities

67
Q

How do fertility drugs work?

A

Anti-oestrogens block oestrogen receptors in hypothalamus so LH and FSH increases allowing ovulation
Gonadotrophins- stimulate follicular growth

68
Q

Explain the process of IVF

A

Natural cycle supressed with GnRH agonist to prevent LH surge and early ovulation
Ovarian hyperstimulation by FSH then LH injections to mature follicles
Eggs collected, incubated and fertilised
Implanted at 4 cell stage
Progesterone given to help

69
Q

Define luteolysis

A

Cell death of corpus luteum cells

70
Q

Define decidual cell reaction

A

Membranes break down where they come into contact with each other to form single multinucleated cell

Physiology 1B (4 decks)

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