Renal Flashcards
What are causes of HLA sensitisation prior to renal transplant?
- Previous transplant with poor HLA mathing
- pregnancies
- blood transfusions
What influence does HLA antibodies have on renal transplant?
Reduces graft survival but still achieve better survival than dialysis
What immunosuppression is used in renal transplantation?
Basiliximab induction = anti-CD25 (IL-2R)
Prednisolone
Tacrolimus = calcinuerin inhibitor
Mycophenylate = antimetabolite
What is basiliximab?
Human/mouse chimeric mAb against IL-2R (CD25) present on activated T-cells to reduce rejection
What is ATG? What is it’s role in renal transplant and risks?
Rabbit polyclonal Ab (thymoglobulin) that targets T-cells
Reduces acute rejection
Increased risk of infection and malignancy (esp PTLD in EBV donor+ recipient-)
What are pros and cons of using Tacrolimus over cyclosporin for renal transplant?
Pros:
- less acute rejection
- less de novo Donor Specific Antibodies (chronic graft rejection and loss)
- less gum hypertrophy
- less hirsitism
- less drug interaction
Cons:
- more post transplant diabetes
- low magnesium/phosphate
- more neurotoxicity
- more hair loss
Are tacrolimus and cyclosporin safe in pregnancy?
Yes
What is the mechanism of action of mycophenylate?
Inhibits IMPDH involved in purine synthesis
What interaction occurs with mycophenylate and ciclosporin?
Mycophenylate lower ciclosporin levels (but doesn’t affect tacrolimus)
What are the pros and cons of mycophenylate compared to azathioprine?
Pros:
- less acute rejection
- no interaction with allopurinol
- no issue in TPMT deficiency
Cons:
- more diarrhoea
- not safe in pregnancy (need to use azathioprine pre conception)
What is the mechanism of action of sirolimus and everolimus?
Bind FK binding protein and inhibit mTOR to inhibit IL-2 signalling
Are mTORi (sirolimus, everolimus) safe in pregnancy?
No
What is the most common cause of graft loss post renal transplant?
Death
What are early and late causes of death with graft function?
Early:
- infection (33%)
- cardiovascular (29%)
- cancer (7%)
Late:
- cancer (29%)
- cardiovascular (22%)
- infection (13%)
What are the early and late causes of renal graft loss (that are not death)?
Early (1st year):
- graft thrombosis/technical error (37%)
- rejection (17%)
- GN (3%)
Late:
- chronic allograft nephropathy (60%)
- GN (6%)
- Acute rejection and non-adherence (4%)
What is chronic allograft nephropathy?
Multifactorial:
- chronic CNI toxicity
- chronic antibody mediated rejection (unresolved early rejection, non-adherence, donor specific antibodies)
What is the most common cause of delayed graft function?
Post ischaemic ATN
What are risk factor for post-ischaemic ATN as a cause for delayed graft function?
- deceased donor (uncommon in live)
- donor AKI
- donor age
- DCD
- cold ischaemia time
What are causes of delayed graft function other than post-ischaemic ATN that need to eb excluded?
- Graft thrombosis (Day 1 USS)
- obstruction or urine leak
- rejection (needs biopsy)
- Early disease recurrence (FSGS, TMA, oxalosis)
What are causes of early worsening graft function?
- acute rejection (biopsy)
- CNI toxicity
- renal artery stenosis
- obstruction/leak/collection post stent removal
- BK nephropathy
- recurrent disease (FSGS, aHUS)
What are the two types of acute renal transplant rejection?
- T-cell mediated
- Antibody mediated
What are risk factors for acute renal transplant rejection?
- previous HLA sensitisation
- pre-transplant antibodies against donor
- younger recipient with older donor
- prolonged ischaemia time
- delayed graft function
- HLA mismatches
How is acute renal transplant rejection managed?
T-cell mediated:
- IV methylpred for 3 days
- optimise maintenance immunsuppression
- ATG if steroid resistance
Antibody mediated:
- plasma exchange
- IVIg
- consider rituximab
Need PJP prophylaxis
CMV prophylaxis or pre emptive monitoring
What is the most important HLA matching in terms of long term outcomes and sensitisation for subsequent transplant?
DQ
What is BK and its relevance to renal transplant? How is it managed?
Polyoma virus that can cause nephropathy
Screened for with serum PCR in first 12 months
Reduce antimetabolite when viraemia detected
Biopsy if graft dysfunction to exclude concurrent rejection - see intranuclear viral staining + SV40 in medulla
No specific anti-viral, give IVIg or steroid
What CMV prophylaxis should be in renal transplant?
Depends on donor status:
D+R- = 6 months prophylaxis with valganciclovir
D-R+ = 3 months prophylaxis with valganciclovir OR pre emptive monitoring
D-R- = none unless ATG used
How is CMV infection treated in renal transplant?
PO double dose valganciclovir OR IV ganciclovir
Foscarnet or cidofovir if resistant
How can skin cancers be prevented post transplant?
- sun protection
- Switch CNI to mTORi
- avoid azathioprine
What COVID anti-virals interact with tacrolimus?
Paxlovid (remdesivir and molnupiravir do not)
What are the most common causes of renal artery stenosis?
- atherosclerotic disease (60-80%)
- fibromuscular dysplasia (10-20%)
What are the clinical features of fibromuscular dysplasia?
Affect F:M 3:1
60% involve renal artery (35% bilateral)
String of beads appearance in mid to distal renal artery
ischaemia rare
poor repsonse to intervention
What are clinical features of atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis?
Older age
M = F
Affects ostial/proximal portion of renal artery, can be bilateral
Can result in ischaemia
Less amenable to intervention
What is the pathophysiology of renovascualr hypertension?
Reduced renal blood flow results in activation of renin (needs 80% stenosis to see reduced blood flow)
Renin cleaves Angiotensinogen to angiotensinI, which is activated to angiotensinII by ACE
AngiotensinII results in:
- vasoconstriction
- renal sodium retention
- aldosterone secretion
- hypertrophy and remodelling of LV and vessels
- Sympathetic activation
What is pressure natriuresis?
Increased renal perfusion in contralateral kidney in unilateral renal artery stenosis results in increased sodium excretion
What is Pickering syndrome?
In bilateral renal artery stenosis or solitary kidney unable to do pressure natriuresis resulting in sodium and fluid retention, which results in pulmonary oedema
What features are suggestive of renal artery stenosis?
HTN age < 30 or > 50
Abrupt onset HTN
Acceleration of previously stable BP
Malignant HTN
Accelerated retinopathy
Flash pulmonary oedema
AKI with ACEi
What is the sensitivity and specificity of renin and aldosterone levels in renal artery stenosis?
Both are low!
What is the diagnostic tests can be used for renal artery stenosis?
Doppler ultrasound
CT with contrast
MRI with contrast
Nuclear scan
Gold standard = angiography
How is renal artery stenosis managed?
BP management with RAAS blockade
CV risk modification
Angioplasty for FMD, only considered in atherosclerotic if flash pulmonary oedema or progressive CKD
What s the definition of CKD?
eGFR < 60 AND evidence of kidney damage (proteinuria) on more than 2 occasions over at least 3 months
What are the different stages of kidney function?
1 = GFR > 90
2 = GFR 60-89
3a = GFR 45-59
3b = GFR 30-44
4 = GFR 15-29
5 = GFR < 15 or on dialysis
What is the role of each of these segments of the nephron?
Glomerulus
Juxtaglomerular apparatus
Tubules
Glomerulus = filtration
Juxtaglomerular apparatus = autoregulation
Tubules = sodium, water, potassium, acid/base and other electrolyte balances
How should proteinuria be treated?
RAAS blockade (ACEi or ARB)
SGLT2i
What are BP targets in CKD?
Aim < 140/90 if no albuminuria
Aim < 130/80 if albuminuria
What is the biggest cause of anaemia in CKD?
Iron deficiency (followed by EPO deficiency)
Through what mechanism does CKD result in acidosis?
Loss of ability to synthesize ammonia and secrete hydrogen
What is the role of sodium bicarbonate in CKD?
May slow progression in moderate CKD
What is the cause of hyperkalaemia in CKD?
Decreased clearance
Tubulointerstitial dysfunction
RAAS inhibitors
What factors increase phosphate excretion in the urine?
PTH
Klotho
FGF23
What is the function of FGF23?
Suppresses phosphate reabsorption
Increases phosphate excretion
Reduces 1,25 Vitamin D activation
What happens to levels of the following in CKD
FGF23
1,25 vitD
PTH
FGF23 increases
1,25 vitD decreases
PTH increases
What is the target phosphate level in CKD?
aim for normal range
How is AKI defined?
Using KDIGO:
- serum Cr increase by >26.5 umol/L in 48h
- increase serum Cr >1.5x normal in last 7 days
- urine volume < 0.5 mL/kg/h for 6 hours
What makes the kidney vulnerable to injury?
High metabolic demand marginal oxygenation to outer medulla (proximal tubule and loop of henle)
What are renal causes of AKI?
- glomerulonephritis
- acute tubular necrosis
- acute interstitial nephritis
- acute microvascular disease
What is the pathophysiology of acute tubular necrosis?
- ischaemic (extension of pre-renal AKI)
- toxic (myoglobin, aminoglycosides, IV contrast, chemotherapies)
What are biopsy features of acute interstitial nephritis?
Increased cellular infiltrate
What are causes of acute interstitial nephritis?
Drugs:
- beta lactams
- PPIs
- NSAIDs
- immunotherapy
Infection
Immune:
- Sjogren’s
- sarcoidosis
- IgG4 disease
Idiopathic
What are aetiologies of acute miscrovascular AKI?
- thrombotic microangiopathy: HUS-TTP
- DIC
- catastrophic anti-phospholipid syndrome
- systemic sclerosis
- cholesterol emboli
How does urinary sodium help to demonstrate the cause of AKI?
- low urinary sodium = pre renal
- high urinary sodium = ATN
What do hyaline casts in urine indicate?
- reduced renal perfusion
- composed of uromodulin formed in loop of henle
- seen in exercise and dehydration
What doe renal tubular epithelial cells (RTEC) in urine indicate?
ischaemic or toxic tubular injury (ATN)
What do granular casts in urine indicate?
ATN
What do white cell casts in the urine indicate?
AIN
What do dysmoprhic red cells and red cell casts indicate in the urine?
Glomerular haemorrhage, especially in proliferative glomerular lesion
What are contraindications to kidney biopsy?
- kidney failure
- coagulopathy (antiplatelets, anticoagulation)
- bilateral cysts
- uncontrolled hypertension
- hydronephrosis
- UTI
What are the indications for RRT in AKI?
- acidaemia
- hyperkalaemia
- toxins
- overlaod
- uraemia (pericarditis, encephalopathy)
Where are the glomeruli in the kidney?
In the cortex
What are the 3 layers of the glomerulus?
- endothelial layer
- GBM (negatively charged)
- podocyte foot processes
What is the criteria to diagnose nephrotic syndrome?
Proteinuria > 3.5g/24 hours, hypoalbuminaemia, generalised oedema, hyperlipidaemia
What is the criteria of nephritic syndrome?
Haematuria with RBC casts and dysmorphic RBCs
Often seen with oliguria, hypertension and progressive reduction in GFR