Religious Language Flashcards
(307 cards)
1
Q
What does Religious Language refer to?
A
Religious language talks about religious and spiritual concepts such as God and the afterlife (things outside our senses)
2
Q
What is the study of religious language concerned with?
A
Working out whether religious language is meaningful.
3
Q
What is cognitive language?
A
Cognitive language can be shown to be ‘true’ or ‘false’ as it is concerned with facts.
4
Q
What is non-cognitive language?
A
Language that cannot be shown to be ‘true’ or ‘false’
5
Q
What are the two main problems with religious language?
A
- How can words be used to accurately describe God?
2. Is religious language meaningless?
6
Q
What do logical positivists claim?
A
That statements about God have no meaning because they do not relate to facts.
7
Q
What was the Vienna circle?
A
A group of philosophers, including Rudolf Carnap, Moritz Shlick, Otto Neurath, and Friedrich Waisman.
8
Q
Who was the Vienna circle inspired by?
A
Ludwig Wittgenstein
9
Q
What came from the Vienna circle?
A
The logical positivist movement.
10
Q
What did the logical positivists come up with?
A
The verification principle
11
Q
What do logical positivists believe?
A
That some statements are meaningful and some statements are meaningless.
12
Q
What does the strong verification principle say?
A
A statement is only meaningful if:
- It is a tautology
- It is able to be verified by sense experience.
13
Q
What did Freidrich Waismann say in regards to the verification principle?
A
“A statement which cannot be conclusively verified cannot be verified at all. It is simply devoid of any meaning.”
14
Q
What was Ludwig Wittgenstein’s first theory?
A
In Tractatus Logico-philosophicas he wrote that the only language that had meaning was the language of science; language that referred to empirical reality. “Whereof we do not know, thereof we cannot speak.”
15
Q
What does the verification principle say about non-cognitive statements?
A
That they are meaningless, as they are not a tautology and cannot be verified with sense experience.
16
Q
What are the two main problems with the strong verification principle?
A
- You cannot make statements about history, as such statements cannot be verified by sense experience.
- Richard Swinburne pointed out that universal statements cannot be verified. E.G. “All ravens are black”
17
Q
Who created the weak verification principle?
A
A.J Ayer
18
Q
What did A J Ayer draw a distinction between?
A
Verifiable in practice; you can observe it through sense experience.
Verifiable in principle; we know how it could be verified, but in practice we are unable to do so.
19
Q
What does the weak verification principle say?
A
A statement is only meaningful if:
- . It is a tautology (or)
- It is verifiable in principle
20
Q
Why is the verification principle criticised by being unverifiable?
A
Many thinkers have objected to the verification principle as it is itself unverifiable. It is not a tautology and cannot be verified empirically.
21
Q
How did A J Ayer respond to the criticism that verification was unverifiable?
A
He argued that the verification principle only applied to statements or propositions, not to whole theories.
22
Q
How did Keith Ward criticise the weak verification principle?
A
He stated that it excluded nothing, as all experienced could be considered ‘verifiable in principle’ and therefore meaningful. He argued that the existence of god could be verified in principle since “If I were God I would be able to check the truth of my own existence.”
23
Q
How did A J Ayer respond to the criticism that the verification principle excluded nothing?
A
He later admitted (the central questions of philosophy, 1973) that his criteria for verification was inadequate because it allowed all statements to be classed as meaningful.”
24
Q
Why does John Hick argue that the verification principle does not render religious statements meaningless?
A
Because God could be verified at the end of time. He calls this eschatological verification.
25
What analogy does John Hick give to explain eschatological verification?
He gave the example of two men walking down the same road. One believed it lead to the celestial city. The believer's statements can be verified at the end of the journey (the afterlife)
26
What is the problem with eschatological verification?
The difficulty with this approach is that you cannot disproof it, for if there is no celestial city, no life after death, no God, then there will be no one to know the falsity of this belief.
27
What is the problem with the weak verification in regards to historical statements?
Some religious statements are also historical statements. This could therefore be considered to be 'verifiable in principle' as at one time it could have been verified by sense experience.
28
What did logical positivists draw a distinction between?
A statement that was meaningful and a statement that was true (or false).
29
What are the main problems with the verification principle?
- It excludes many areas of knowledge e.g. historical statements
- Swinburne argued that it excludes universal statements
- Claims made by advances in science would be meaningless
- It would make the symptoms of people experience psychological problems meaningless
- it would dismiss statements as meaningless, even if they have meaning for us.
30
What is the evidence problem with the verification principle?
It is not clear what sort of evidence could count in the verification assessment. While A J Ayer rejects accounts or religious experiences, others have suggested that there is evidence that such experience happen and are caused by God.
31
How can some statements be meaningful but unverifiable?
Swinburne gave the examples of toys that come out of the cupboard only at night. It is meaningful but unverifiable by sense experience.
- Schrodinger's cat
32
What is the main problem of the verification principle, which Ayer himself agreed with?
The theory could not be adjusted so that scientific and historical statements were seen as meaningful but religious statements were not.
33
What did A J Ayer mean when he said that a statement was meaningless?
He meant it was not factually significant. He was not denying that people make other types of statements that are important to them.
34
What did Ayer call the statement being tested?
Putative proposition.
35
Why did Ayer argue that weak verification should be used?
He argued that weak verification should be used as opposed to strong verification, as strong verification "had no possible application."
36
Why did Ayer argue we couldn't make meaningful statements about metaphysical ideas?
Because we can have no knowledge of things beyond experience gained through our senses.
37
What is an 'observation statement'?
A statement which records an actual or possible observation.
38
What is a direct verification?
A statement that is verifiable through observation.
39
What is indirect verification?
A statement that is not directly verifiable or analytic, but can be verified if other directly verifiable evidence could support it.
40
What question does falsification address?
When is a statement scientific as opposed to any other type of statement?
41
What example for working out scientific statements did Karl Popper give?
He argued that Einstein's theory of gravity was scientific because it was potentially falsifiable, because it could be tested against empirical observations of the universe. Astrology on the other hand is unscientific because the prophecies are too vague, so can't be tested nor falsified.
42
What did John Wisdom's garden analogy say?
The two people observing the garden are both making reasonable statements, but neither can be verified. This suggests that the existence or nature of God is a matter that is outside the scope of traditional methods of scientific enquiry.
43
How does Pseudo Dionysius support the Via Negativa?
He claims that making positive statements about God results in an anthropomorphic idea of God. This limits God.
44
How does the 12th Century Jewish Philosopher Maimonides support the Via Negative?
It can be seen as more respective, as making positive statements about God is improper and disrespectful as it brings God down to a human level.
45
What are the strengths of the via negative?
- It supports the view of many thinks (especially mystics) that Go is beyond description and is infallible- Teresa of Avila
- Only the via negative properly communicats that God is transcendent, as it does not limit God by giving a point of reference that is in the physical world.
- It applies equally well across cultures and time
- Unlike Symbol and Myth it does not require interpretation
46
What are the weaknesses of the Via Negativa?
- Gives you a very weak understanding of God
- It is not a true reflection of how religious people speak.
- It is just a longwinded way of getting to the positive statement
- Scripture talks about God with positive statements
47
What are bliks?
An unfalsifiable statements which are still important
48
What is a Tautology?
A statement that is true by definition
49
What is a theist?
Someone who believes in the existence of a god or gods
50
What is an atheist?
A person who disbelieves in the existence of a god or gods
51
What is reason?
The faculty or power of acquiring intellectual knowledge, either by direct understanding of principles or by argument.
52
What is dualist?
The belief that the mind and the body are not identical
53
What is a mystic?
Belief that union with a deity is obtained through contemplation and self-surrender.
54
What is a realist?
People who believe that a statement is true if it correctly describes reality
55
What is an anti-realist?
People who believe that a statement is true if it fits in with other statements.
56
What is eschatology?
The part of theology concerned with death, judgement and the final destiny of the soul and of humankind.
57
What does Peter Donovan say about religious language?
He argues that properly utilised religious language helps people to discipline their emotions and channel the appropriately for positive gain, such as creating compassion for the weak .
58
How does Peter Donovan's view support Wittgenstein language games?
Peter Donovan seems to claim that religious language has meaning within the context, as it leads to a shared understanding and use.
59
What does DZ Philips say about language games?
He argues that although religious belief is a 'game' which must be taken on its own terms, the game itself need not apply to everyone. This supports the language game theory as it demonstrates why religious language statements need only have meaning for the believer and not the non-believer
60
What are myths an example of?
Another way to make positive truth claims about God, as opposed to negative statements, usually in the form of stories.
61
What is a myth?
In theology the word 'myth' is used to describe a story or metaphor which is not necessarily historically accurate but nevertheless conveys important truths that might be difficult to express in different ways.
62
What is myth intended to do?
To encourage a particular kind of attitude in the people who hear or read it- e.g. it may be an appreciation of the greatness of God, or a deeper understanding of moral behaviour and its consequences.
63
What are the mythological features of the Genesis creation stories?
- Unusual trees with special powers
- People being made from dust and from ribs
- A talking serpent
64
Why can it be argued that the Genesis creation stories are intended to be understood as myths?
Some point out the parallels from myth and folk tales from other cultures, and when compared with the scientific accounts of the origin of the universe and the evolution of species, it seems that we must conclude the stories are meant to be seen as myths.
65
What are the Genesis creation stories often described as?
Aetiological myths
66
What are aetiological myths?
Myths that set out to explain the origins of puzzling features of the world.
67
Who developed a modern day methods of analogically speaking about God?
Ian Ramsey
68
What terms did Ian Ramsey introduce?
Models and qualifiers
69
What are models?
Words we understand because we have a reference point in our own world, e.g. "loving"
70
What are qualifiers?
Words such as 'everlasting' or 'perfectly' in order to not limit God by recognising that his attributes are unlike our own.
71
What was the first theory that Wittgenstein put forward?
The picture theory of meaning
72
What does the picture theory of meaning state?
The primary function of words is to name objects and the meaning of a word is the object it stands for. Every word matched something in empirical reality. Hence, being wrong about the meaning is being wrong about the link between words and things.
73
Where was the picture theory of meaning proposed?
In the Tractatus
74
What did the picture theory of meaning influence?
The verification principle
75
What did Wittgenstein later say about the picture theory of meaning and where did he say this?
He argued that it is unrealistic to suppose that all words are ultimately based on pictures and pointed out that language is used in a variety of different ways. This can be found in Philosophical Investigations.
76
What does Wittgenstein liken language to?
A game that we play. There are many different games each of which have their own rules. However, it does not make sense to take the rules of one game and apply them to another.
77
What is the meaning of language based on according to the language game theory?
Language is used by many different people in different contexts. There may be a number of different language games going on. The meaning of a word in one particular 'game' is determined by the 'rules' of that game i.e. It is determined by the way that the word is used in the game.
78
What is at the heart of Wittgenstein's language game?
The idea that words only have meaning because of their context and therefore we have to be careful to know which game we are playing.
79
What did Wittgenstein conclude created the philosophical problems about language?
He said the philosophical problems about language are created by not understanding that words can be used in different language games.
80
What did Wittgenstein caused the problems associated with the word 'soul'?
He said these problems are caused by trying to see the world as some sort of physical objects. The problem would be dissolved if it were realised that the physical object game simply does not apply to the soul.
81
What is the term 'language game' used to highlight?
That the speaking of a language is part of an activity.
82
How does meaning emerge according to Wittgenstein?
It emerges in the context of human activity, not from dependence on correspondence between word and object.
83
How did Wittgenstein argue that we develop the 'rules' of the games?
He argued that we do not so much discover the rules of how to use a word but rather we agree upon it.
84
What is a 'meaning mistake' according to Wittgenstein?
Not applying the word in the right way
85
What counts as the right way according to Wittgenstein?
The public, shared language-game.
86
What did Wittgenstein call the rules of the public, shared language-game?
Grammar
87
Who debated falsification in a series of academic articles?
Anthony Flew, R.M. Hare, and Basil Mitch
88
How did R.M. Hare respond to falsification?
With his theory of 'bliks'
89
What parable did R.M. Hare to explain his bliks?
He used the parable of the lunatic who believed that all dons (Oxford term for a university professor), even the most kind and gentle, were about to murder him to illustrate this.
90
What is a blik?
Hare's term for a basic belief that cannot be proved true or false by sense experience/empirical evidence.
91
What does Hare say about bliks?
He said that people have right (sane) bliks or wrong (insane) bliks; the lunatic has the wrong 'blik' about dons. For Hare, religious belief would be a particular blik.
92
Why did Hare disagree with Flew?
He said that Flew makes a mistake by treating religious statements as though they are scientific statements.
93
Why does Hare's lunatic story not help traditional religious belief claims?
If religious beliefs are 'bliks', this suggests that religious beliefs are an interpretation of the world, which could be sane or insane.
94
Why did John Hick criticise the idea of bliks?
He argued that religious beliefs are based on reason- this could be a belief in a sacred text or as a result of a religious experience.
95
What parable did Basil Mitchell used to explain that religious language was based on facts? (argued against bliks)
The stranger. In the parable, a member of the resistance movement is met one day by a man claiming to be its leader. The fighter pledges his loyalty to the stranger. Sometimes the 'leader' is seen helping out the resistance, but at other times seems to be helping out the enemy. The fighter nevertheless carries on believing that the stranger is in fact the leader of the resistance movement.
96
How is Mitchell's parable different from Hare's?
Hare's lunatic has no reason for mistrusting dons and will allow nothing to count against his belief. Mitchell's fighter however is willing to admit that things can count against his belief in the leader. His belief is based on reason and facts.
97
What is Mitchell's point of view on religious language?
That religious language is based upon facts, but it cannot be verified or falsified in the simplistic way demanded by logical positivists.
98
What is Anthony Flew's parable of the gardener?
He adapted John Wisdom's parable of the gardener. Two explorers find a jungle clearing in which weeds and flowers grow. One explorer believes there is a gardener, and the other does not. Despite many attempts to find this gardener, they do not see him. The explorer who believes that there is a gardener will not give up this belief. Finally one of the explorers says "Just how does what you can an invisible, intangible, eternally elusive gardener different from an imaginary gardener or even no gardener at all?"
99
What does Anthony Flew argue?
That the believer acts in the same way as the explorer who believed that there was a gardener. He claims that believers shift the goalposts so much that the claims they make are so watered down that they are barely statements at all.
100
What does Anthony Flew say about believers shifting their statements about God?
That it causes God to die a 'death of a thousand qualification'
101
Where did the falsification principle originally come from?
Karl Popper
102
What did Karl Popper claim made a statement scientific?
He says that statements are scientific is our sense experience can show them to be false.
103
What is the falsification principle?
The theory that a statement is meaningless if there is no way to show it is false
104
What did Flew argue was the problem with religious language?
That it can't be falsified (no empirical evidence can count against it or prove it wrong) because religious believers do not accept any evidence to count against their beliefs.
105
What did Flew say make God die a 'death of a thousand qualification'?
The believer giving reasons why God remains good, by providing constant qualifications that seem to alter the definition of God.
106
What did Hare agree with Flew about?
He thought that Flew was right about the problem of falsification and agreed that religious language may be non-cognitive and unfalsifiable.
107
What did Hare disagree with Flew about?
He thought religious statements were still meaningful and important.
108
What did Hare regard religious beliefs as?
As 'bliks', where are his term for unfalsifiable statements which are still important.
109
Why does Hare think that religious statements still have meaning?
He argued that they have meaning in the sense that they influence the way people look at the world and lead their lives (whether or not it is true)
110
What does Basil Mitchell use his parable of the stranger to say?
He is saying that it is not that things do not count against a belief that the resistance leader is who is says he is, rather that they do not suddenly force disbelief.
111
What point is Basil Mitchell making about religious statements?
That you can empirically falsify a religious belief, but this may not be enough to force us not to believe in God. It is difficult to say how much evidence counting against a belief is needed for it to be overthrown.
112
What are non-cognitive statements based on?
Belief, opinion and emotions
113
What advantages does myth present for understanding the abstract?
It gives people a visual way of understanding what are often abstract ideas, so these ideas can be more easily understand. Ideas can be expressed in myth which might be difficult to communicate in other ways. Sometimes different meanings and levels of meaning can all be conveyed within one story, so that people can return to them again and find new ways of relating the stories to their own lives.
114
What advantage does myth provide for positive statements?
Through myth, believers are able to communicate something of positive about God, without having to resort to the via negative.
115
What advantage does myth provide for being lively and memorable?
Because the stories are often lively and memorable, they are passed on from each generation to the next and can be so vivid that the myth is still remembered eve when the religion has died out.
116
What advantage does myth provide for being compatible with science?
If the Genesis stories were understood as mythical ways of communicating important ideas, then intelligent and rational people could continue their Christian faith while accepting the discoveries of science.
117
What are the advantages of myth?
- Compatible with science
- Lively and memorable
- Allows us to use positive statements
- helps us understand the abstract
118
What is the disadvantages of myth in relation to understanding?
It is very difficult for people to know how a myth is to be understood: what are the central, important truths that should be distilled from it, and what is the embellishment that can be safely stripped away?
119
What is the disadvantages of myth in relation to history?
When the writer does not make it explicit whether the story is meant to be a myth, or whether it is meant to be an accurate account of history. The difference of opinion causes both sharp divisions within both Judaism and Christianity. In the sacred writings of many religions, a story which might or might not be intended as myth is left up to the reader to decide how to interpret it.
120
Why would literalists disagree with the use of myth?
For them, interpreting the word of God as 'myth' comes too far to suggesting that the words of the bible are false.
121
What is a liberalist interpretation?
Those Jews and Christians who take the view that important truths are being communicated, but that the stories do not have to be regarded as literally true- indeed, to them as if they were historically and scientifically accurate misses their point.
122
What is a literalist interpretation?
Those who believe that the stories in the Bible and in the Qur'an are directly inspired by God and are to be accepted as entirely true.
123
What is the disadvantage with myth being culturally determined?
The mythological imagery has a tendency to be culturally determined. Although myths can often by understood outside their cultural contexts, they are likely to communicate the most to a specific geographical location and time. Ideas used might have significance in one culture but not another, or could take on a meaning that the writer never intended, distorting the original communication. Meaning can be 'lost in translation'
124
What are the disadvantages of myth?
- Often culturally determined
- Myth or history?
- Difficult to know how it should be understood
125
How do Christians view myth in the Old and New Testament?
Many Christians were able to accept the idea that the Old Testament was full of myth, but many Christians found it more difficult to accept the same about the New Testament.
126
What did Rudolf Bultmann argue in regard to myth?
That the writers of the New Testament were never trying to make a record of accurate historical fact, but that they had expressed their belief through the language of myth. He said that the New Testament needed to be reinterpreted so that it is consistent with our modern worldview. He called this 'demythologising'
127
What did Rudolf Bultmann believe was the real message of the gospel?
Was the need for the individuals to reach a person decision about the direction they wanted their lives to take in relation to God.
128
Why did Rudolf Bultmann believe that the New Testament had to be myth to be taken seriously?
The modern, intelligent, literate person could not take seriously the supernatural elements of the Gospel stories such as visitations from angels, the virgin birth and miraculous events.
129
Why did Bultmann advocate 'demythologising' the New & Old Testament?
To enable Christianity to hold what he saw as its rightful place as an essential, vital option in a fast-changing world. After demythologising, what remains are the eternal truths.
130
What did John Hick say about God Incarnate?
That Jesus was not literally God in human form, but that this idea was a myth to express the importance of Jesus to God. The idea of God becoming human predated the New Testament and early Christians used this as an aid to express their own ideas.
131
What did John Hick and his co-authors argue about myth?
That the way in which first-century Christians understood the world in inappropriate today, and that the mythological language they used to convey their ideas might be a hindrance rather than a help to faith today.
132
What quote did John Hick say about the difference between first-century Christians and modern Christians?
"The Christians of the early church lived in a world in which supernatural causation was accepted without question, and divine or supernatural visitants were not unexpected. Such assumptions, however, have become foreign to our situation. In the Western world, both popular culture and the culture of intelligentsia has come to be dominated by the human and natural sciences to such an extent that supernatural causation or intervention in the affairs of this world has become, for the majority of people, simply incredible."
133
What problems do conservative Christians have with Bultmann and Hick's work about myth?
- For many there are some central beliefs which should be taken literally (the virgin birth, the resurrection of Jesus etc.)
- If these ideas are treated as myth then Christianity becomes not much more than general advice to be nice to other people.
- Some argue that it should not be taken for granted that a rationalist, scientific way of looking at the world is the best or the only way of understanding the truth; if modern society has difficulty in accepting the literal truth of biblical ideas, then modern society should change.
134
What is a sign?
A sign points us towards something else. (as long as we agree on the meaning of the sign, it does not really matter what form it takes)
135
What is a symbol?
A symbol participates in that to which it points. It communicates a deeper understanding of something that can be put into words.
136
What did Paul Tillich believe about religious language?
He believed that all religious language was symbolic, including the life of God.
137
How did Paul Tillich say we could meaningfully talk about God?
Through the use of symbols.
138
How do religious people use symbols?
Religious people use symbolism not only in language, but in art, architecture, even body language- through kneeling for example, they remind themselves of their position in relation to God.
139
What do religious people use the symbol of light to represent?
Many things, such as God, truth, knowledge, revelation, goodness, purity, faith, purification, prayer, remembrance of the dead etc.
140
What are the form main functions of symbols that Paul Tillich outlined?
- They point to something beyond themselves
- They participate in that to which they point
- They 'open up levels of reality which otherwise were closed to us'
- They 'unlock dimensions and elements of our soul.'
141
What does Tillich mean when he says that symbols point to something beyond themselves?
That religious symbols communicate the most significant beliefs and values of human beings. They communicate something which is often difficult to put into words.
142
What does Tillich mean when he says that symbols participate in that to which they point?
Tillich suggested that symbols, unlike signs, participate in the thing which they point to. By this he meant that the symbol somehow represents the event and gives access to a deeper level of understanding of the event.
143
How does the symbol of the crucifix participate in that to which it points?
It not only reminds Christians of Jesus' death on a cross, but it also carries with it the deeper Christian understanding of Jesus' death as a sacrifice or act of redemption.
144
What does Tillich mean when he says that symbols open up levels of reality which otherwise were closed to us?
For example, when the Bible speaks of the kingdom of God, we can understand an earthly kingdom with a powerful ruler, and through an understanding of this, we can go beyond to understand the power and rule of God over the universe.
145
What does Tillich mean when he says that a symbol unlocks dimension and elements of our soul?
God, in Tillich's thinking is defined as the ground of being. Symbols take us to the 'ground of being'. For him, God is the basis of all that exists and also the meaning behind all that exists. The ground of being cannot be comprehended or known in a personal way, but is know through symbols. Symbols include the major theological ideas of sacrifice and eternal life.
146
How does Tillich define God?
As the Ground of being, as the basis of all that exists and also the meaning behind all that exists.
147
How does Tillich maintain that religious language gives us an understanding of God?
He says that religious language is a symbolic way of pointing towards an ultimate reality. Tillich believed that we come to known of this through symbols which direct us to it.
148
What did Tillich argue we did when we talk about God?
That we are not talking about a being but 'being itself.'
149
Why do Christians argue against the use of symbols?
Many Christians do not think that all religious language is symbolic. Instead they would argue that statements such as God is good, have a meaning that is factual or literal. Some even take stories from religious tradition literally.
150
Why do people argue that religious symbols are restrictive?
It could be argued that the symbol can only be properly understood by those within a restricted community. Perhaps this means that the meaning of religious symbols can only be understood by those who are believers themselves, making them inaccessible to non-believers.
151
Why do some argue that the symbols used are neither adequate or appropriate?
A symbol is intended to point to the way to understanding something. It is not possible for religious symbols to represent successfully that which is beyond human experience. There is no way of knowing if the symbols give the wrong insights about the ultimate reality. Therefore there is no way of knowing if the symbols are appropriate.
152
What did Tillich note was the issue with symbols?
That symbols do lose their meaning, or they can be reinterpreted and come to mean something different. E.g. the Swastika
153
What is the issue with symbols and interpretation?
Symbols can be interpreted in different ways by different groups of people. The Genesis creation story for example is interpreted literally by many people, symbolically by others and as meaningless for by some.
154
Why did Macquarrie disagree with Tillich?
He disagreed with his use of the term 'symbol', saying that is was not consistent with current English usage and it was therefore misleading and unhelpful. He argued that we might say "clouds are a sign of rain" which is an example of how a sign can have an intrinsic connection with what it signifies, in contradiction to what Tillich says about signs.
155
What idea did Macquarrie put forward about symbol?
He put forward the idea of a conventional and intrinsic symbol.
156
What quote did Macquarrie say about conventional and intrinsic symbols?
"The conventional symbol has no connection with what it symbolises other than the fact that some people have arbitrarily agreed to let it stand for this particular symbolizandum. The intrinsic symbol, on the other hand, as it itself a kinship with what it symbolises."
157
Why did Paul Edwards argue against the use of symbols?
He did not believe that symbols conveyed any factual knowledge, and asserted that they are meaningless.
158
What did Tillich mean when he said that religious language was symbolic?
That religious symbols communicate the most significant beliefs and values of human beings.
159
What example did Tillich give to understand that symbols participate in the thing which they point to?
He said to think of music, which can communicate with people on a different level compared to words. Music can be a form of expression; it can capture the mood of the moment as well as communicating feelings and beliefs.
160
what did Tillich mean when he said that symbols participate in the thing which they point to?
That the symbol somehow represents the event and gives access to a deeper level of understanding of the event.
161
Why did Tillich argue that the ground of being must be the ultimate concern of people?
He defined God as the ground of being. For Tillich, He is the basis of all that exists and also the meaning behind all that exists. Therefore he must be the ultimate concern of people; material possessions and ideas cannot replace God.
162
What do religious symbols include and work as?
The major theological ideas such as atonement, sacrifice and eternal life. Jesus' life and work thus function as symbols that can reveal the ground of being.
163
Why did Tillich argue that you cannot destroy a symbol?
This may be seen clearly in the efforts of dictators to destroy religious and national symbols. These activities have rarely succeeded and often the support for a symbol has become a sign of resistance.
164
How did Tillich note that symbols do lose their meaning?
They can be reinterpreted and come to mean something different.
165
What is univocal language?
Where words are used to mean the same thing in all situations where they are used; eg. 'green' hat, 'green' ball
166
What is equivocal language?
Where words are used to mean different things in different contexts eg. 'a bat flies' and 'bat the ball'
167
What is an analogy?
An attempt to explain the meaning of something which is unfamiliar or difficult to understand by using a comparison with something familiar and easy to understand.
168
Who suggested that you could talk about God through analogy?
Thomas Aquinas
169
What two routes did Aquinas say individuals can get to God?
1. Divine revelation
| 2. Human reasoning
170
Why did Aquinas reject the use of univocal language when talking about God?
We cannot interpret God univocally because how can our words apply to a transcendent infinite being in exactly the same way they apply to us. If we speak in this way we are saying that God is good in the same way that humans are. Aquinas rejected this because he believed God to be perfect, so imperfect humans cannot be perfect in the same way God is.
171
What quote did Aquinas use to highlight how you couldn't talk about God?
"It seems that no word can be used literally of God."
172
Why did Aquinas reject the use of equivocal language when talking about God?
We cannot interpret God equivocally as it leaves us unable to understand what our words mean when applied to God. If we are speaking equivocally about God, we cannot profess to know anything about him as we are saying that language we use to describe humans or the experienced world around us, does not apply to God.
173
What methods did Aquinas reject when talking about God?
The use of univocal and equivocal language.
174
What quote did Aquinas use to sum up his general view about talking analogically about GOd?
"Some words are used neither univocally nor purely equivocally of God and creatures, but analogically, for we cannot speak of God at all except in the language we use of creatures."
175
What 2 forms of analogy did Aquinas develop to talk about God?
- Analogy of attribution
| - Analogy of proportion
176
What is the analogy of attribution?
This applies when a term, originally used for one thing, is applied to a second thing because the one causes the other. God created the world, so when we see properties such as wisdom, love and goodness that we seen in others we can know that they are reflections of the properties of the creator God. Therefore saying 'God is loving' is meaningful because love is a human attribute and there is a causal connection between God and humans.
177
What example did Brian Davies give about the analogy of attribution?
He uses an example of a baker and bread. The baker causes the bread. If we see that the bread is good, we will also say that the baker is good (even though the word good has a similar but not the same meaning) The baker created the bread so that baker's skill or "goodness" is shown in the bread.
178
What is the analogy of proportion?
The type of properties that something has depends upon the nature of the being that possesses the properties. When we use words to describe God we are describing an infinite being. When we use words of each other we are describing finite being. The meaning cannot be the same, it changes in proportion to the nature of the being that is being described.
179
What example does John Hick give for the analogy of proportion?
He uses Baror Von Hugel's example of the term "faithfulness". This is a word we might use of a dog, a human or God. If we compare the faithfulness that humans have to that of a dog, the dog's faithfulness if limited. Yet when we assert the God is faithful, as are using the word in a way that makes our faithfulness seem quite tiny be comparison.
180
How can we understand God as all powerful through the analogy of proportion?
We can understand God as 'all powerful' as we have the human idea of power. God is proportionally more powerful than humans, so although we cannot completely understand the idea of Dog's omnipotent, we have some insight into God's power because of our human experience of power.
181
What term did Aquinas use to show what we understand about God?
Via eminentiae (the way of eminence)
182
What does the via eminentiae (the way of eminence) mean?
That what we say of God, and indeed what we know of God, is only partial- we should realize that the love of God, for example, is 'eminent.' Our won love and the love that we receive is partial and flawed, but God's love is the prime example of love.
183
What did Aquinas say we had to understand about making positive claims about God?
He said we could use positive claims about God and convey positive ideas, as long as we understand that the words we use have an analogical, rather than a literal, application.
184
What does it mean if we use words in a way which is analogical?
That the same term is used, in not exactly the same sense, but in a similar or related sense.
185
Why does William Blackstone (and others) argue that Thomist doctrine is unhelpful?
Because we have to translate the analogies into univocal language before they mean anything; we have to know how God's love relates to human love before we understand anything. This method of speaking about God still leaves us with an unclear picture, where we know something about the nature of God, but not a great deal.
186
How does C. Stephen Evans argue against William Blackstone's criticism, in support of analogy?
He says that there is nothing wrong with accepting that God is mysterious and that our knowledge of him is limited, as long as the believer understands enough to be able to worship. This otherness of God is something which our language ought to convey, not disguise.
187
How does Rudolf Otto describe the 'otherness' of God?
Mysterium tremendum et fascinans (a fearful and fascinating mystery)
188
What are the arguments against the use of analogy to talk about God?
- No point of comparison if God is entirely different
- Blackstone; unclear picture, and we still have to translate it into univocal language
- Doesn't really tell us anything about God
- Richard Swinburne argues that analogy is still talking univocally
189
What are the arguments for the use of analogy to talk about God?
- Aquinas said there is a point of comparison as God has a causal relationship with the world
- C. Stephen Evans says our language ought to convey that God is mysterious, as long as the believer knows enough to be able to worship
- Scientists use analogical models
190
What does the criticism about lacking a point of comparison for analogy mean?
For an analogy to be valid there needs to be some basis of comparison. If God is meant to be entirely different from human concepts, it is difficult to see how an analogy could be made.
191
What does the criticism about analogy not really telling us anything about God mean?
Analogy does not really tell us anything about God- it may tell us that God has a certain quality like being 'just', but we still do not really know what this is for God. If we cannot know what God being 'just' means, does this suggest that 'God being just' is actually meaningless?
192
What does the criticism of Richard Swinburne mean about analogy?
Richard Swinburne argues that we do not really need analogy at all. When we say 'God is good' and 'humans are good', we may be using 'good' to apply to different things but we are using it to mean the same thing- we are using it univocally
193
How did Aquinas argue against the criticism that there is no point of reference?
He argued that there is a relationship between the world and God, because God has a causal link between Himself and the world, and therefore there is a point of comparison.
194
What is the advantage of scientists using analogical models mean?
Scientists often use analogical models to help convey ideas, and to help them predict how things will behave. An example is a model of an atom, with the nucleus at the centre orbited by electrons. It is not a model in the physical sense, but a conceptual model.
195
What are the arguments for language games?
- Shows how a statement can be meaningless for non-believers, but meaningful to the believer
- Strong links between a game and a religious community
- Explains why people more engaged in religious community can understand more than others
196
What are the arguments against language games?
- Discussions between different faiths are impossible
- Felicity McCatheon 'is Jesus God?'
- Cannot independently verify religious language
- means religious language are inaccessible for non-believers
- many religious statements are intended to apply to everyone, not just believers
- some say that statements are true propositions that can be independently empirically verified.
197
What does the argument for language games mean when it says there are strong links between a game and a religious community?
There are strong links between the ideas of a game and a religious community so the analogy is strong. For example, there are rules, activities, goals, commitment and of course a community.
198
What does the argument for language games mean when it says that it explains how the same statement can be meaningless for some, and meaningful for others?
It provides an explanation for why religious language has meaning for believers. It also shows how at the same time the same language or statement may be meaningless for those outside the specific religious language game.
199
What does the argument for language games mean when it says that it explains how people more involved in the religious community understand more?
The theory explains how the more people engage in religious behaviour, within a religious community, the more they understand and appreciate the language and the subtleties of its use.
200
What does the argument against language games mean when it says that discussions between different faiths are impossible?
If people from different faiths are playing their own language game, how is it possible for discussions to take place? E.g. discussions between different faith traditions about the existence of God.
201
What does Felicity McCatheon mean when she argues against language games with the point "is Jesus God?"
She uses the illustration of the question "is Jesus God". Wittgensteinians would say that you cannot provide a yes or no answer as it is dependant on the language game you are in when you ask it. As such two equally valid but completely opposing answers could be offered.
202
What does the argument against language game mean when it says you cannot independently verify religious language?
Felicity McCatheon points out that every language game develops its own criteria for meaning and truth, so you cannot independently verify religious language.
203
What does the argument against language games mean when it says that it makes it inaccessible to non-believers?
It is difficult for the non-believer or someone outside the language game to understand. Therefore it loses meaning for those unable to participate in the language game. It is true to say that religious language is inaccessible to such people.
204
What does the argument against language game mean when it says that religious statements are often claimed to be true of everyone?
Some would argue that the validity of religious statements are not entirely dependent on context. Many religious statements are claimed to be true for everyone, not just those within a specific language game. Some would say statements made are true propositions that can be independently empirically verified.
205
What is the idea behind the via negativa?
It accepts that we cannot make accurate statements about God because God is completely different and greater than anything we can imagine. Rather than saying we can make no meaningful statements about God, it says that negative statements can be made.
206
What is the other name for the via negativa?
The apophatic way
207
What is the via negativa?
A way of talking about God which says what he is not rather than what he is.
208
What did Pseudo-Dionysius believe about God?
That it is impossible to reach God through the senses of reason. Instead, people seeking God should put away their need to have answers to everything. They should allow God to speak to them in stillness, accepting that Good will remain a mystery, and realising that until they are ready to accept this they will miss the point and end up with an idea of God that is too small.
209
What quote did Pseudo Dionysius use to explain God?
He said he was "beyond assertion" as he is "The perfect and unique cause of all things"
210
Why did Pseudo-Dionysius support the via negativa?
He believed that making positive statements about God limits our idea of God and results in an anthropomorphic idea of God. This limits God.
211
Why did Maimonides support the via negativa?
He said that making positive statements about God is improper and disrespectful as it brings God down to a human level.
212
What example did Maimonides use to support the via negativa?
"A person may know for certain that a 'ship' is in existence, but he may not know to what object that name is applied; a second person then learns that a ship is not an accident; a third, that it is not a mineral; a fourth, that it is not a plant growing in the earth; a fifth, that it is not a body whose parts are joined together by nature; a sixth, that it is not a flat object like boards or doors; a seventh, that it is not a sphere; an eight, that it is not point; a ninth that it is not round shaped; a tenth, that it is not a solid. It is clear that the tenth person has almost arrived at the correct notion of a 'ship' by forgoing negative attributes."
213
How did Maimonides relate the ship example to God?
"In the same manner you will come nearer to the knowledge and comprehension of God by the negative attributes...I do not merely declare that he who affirms attributes of God has not sufficient knowledge concerning the Creator..but I say that he unconsciously loses his belief in God."
214
What are the weaknesses of the Via Negativa?
- Could be argued that it results in a very weak understanding of god
- It is not a true reflection of how religious people speak
- To say the negative statement is to imply the positive statement.
215
Why can it be argued that the Via Negativa results in a very weak understanding of God?
It is difficult to get a good understanding of an everyday object by using only negative terms, let alone an all powerful transcendent God.
216
Why does Brain Davies argue that the Via Negativa results in a very weak understanding of God?
He says that only saying what something is not gives no indication of what it actually is, and if one can only say what God is not, one cannot understand Him at all...Going back to the quotation from Maimonides...it is simply unreasonable to say someone who has all the negations mentioned in it "has arrived at the concept of a ship. He could equally well be thinking of a wardrobe."
217
Why can it be said that the via negativa is not a true reflection of how religious people speak?
Religious people do not talk in the negative but make positive statements about what God is. Many of the Holy Scriptures of the world's religions do make positive statements about God. As it is believed that Holy Scripture comes from God, then this would suggest that it can be right and appropriate to make positive statements about God.
218
Why does the Via Negativa make it very hard for people with no experience of God to understand Him?
If we speak of God negatively, it is not very easy for the person who has no experience of God to know what we mean. To say that 'white is the opposite of black' does not give much help to the person who has never seen and has no concept of black. In the same way it may be difficult for someone to arrive at a concept of God to begin with.
219
What is performative language?
Language used to do things, such as "I promise" or "shit the door". It performs a function. As it does not describe facts it cannot be 'true' or 'false' rather it can only be used correctly or incorrectly.
220
What do logical positivists argue that meaning is?
The "method of verification."
221
What does R.B, Braithwaite argue?
He says that religious language is not trying to express knowledge, rather it is used by individuals and communities to perform different functions. Religious language is not a series of facts about the world, rather it is a way in which people say what they indent to do. He claims it is like a story: it is not literally true but is used to inspire and guide behaviour i.e. it has practical value.
222
What does D.Z. Phillips say about language games?
Although it contains its own rules as to whether statements are "meaningful" or "true", and therefore cannot be criticized by people playing different language games. However, it is possible to question this, as many religious believers are aware of many different beliefs and do themselves play other language games. In other words it is difficult to see how the religious language game could be totally isolated from any other.
223
What phrase did Wittgenstein coin?
"Don't ask for the meaning, ask for the use"
224
What quote did Wittgenstein use to explain why philosophical problems arrive?
"Philosophical problems arise when language goes on holiday."
225
What parallels did Felicity McCutcheon draw between games and language?
- There is no unique object that can be said to be the meaning of the word 'game'. Likewise there is no one meaning of a particular word.
- Learning to play a game means learning the rules. Likewise with language it involves learning what you can and cannot say.
- Both require participation, and participation involves being understood.
- Games are not reality, and meaningfulness of discourse is determined by language users and not reality.
- Making a wrong move is equivalent to applying words in the wrong way- You can't do that = You can't say that.
226
What do Neo-Wittgensteinian claim that Wittgenstein didn't?
Neo-Wittgensteinian account of religious language has made the controversial claim that it cannot be understood as reality depicting. It should be noted that Wittgenstein never made this judgement, only his followers (e.g. D Z Phillips)
227
Who originally developed the falsification principle?
Karl Popper
228
What did Karl Popper say made a statement scientific?
If our sense experiences could show them to be false.
229
What is the falsification principle?
The theory that a statement is meaningless if there is no way to show it is false.
230
How did Anthony Flew apply the falsification principle to the use of religious language?
He said that the problem with religious language is that it cannot be falsified (no empirical evidence can count against it or prove it wrong."
231
What did Anthony Flew argue that religious believers do?
He argues that religious believers do not accept any evidence to falsify their beliefs. E.g. Flew argues that Christians hold the belief that God is good, whatever evidence is offered against his goodness. The believer gives reasons why God remains good and Flew stated that these constant qualifications render religious statements meaningless because they die the "death by a thousand qualifications."
232
In what ways could we say that religious beliefs are based on reason?
- Historical evidence
- Scripture
- Miracles; religious experience
233
What idea of the falsification principle did John Hick criticise?
He responded to Hare's and Flew's belief that religious belief is unfalsifiable and non-cognitive.
234
How did John Hick criticize the idea that religious belief is unfalsifiable and non-cognitive?
He argued that religious beliefs are based on reason. He also argues that there are limitations to the falsification principle as the Celestial city could be verified eschatologically but not falsified.
235
Why did Basil Mitchell disagree with the theory of bliks?
He said that religious statements are based on fact and are empirically falsifiable (although this may be difficult.)
236
What parable did Basil Mitchell give to explain that religious statements are based on fact and are falsifiable?
The parable of the stranger.
| The resistance fighter.
237
Why does the falsification principle fail its own test?
For the principle to be meaningful, there must be things that would count against its truth. However it is not clear what would count as evidence against it.
238
What are the main different ideas about religious language?
The via negativa, verification, falsification, symbol, analogy, and myth.
239
What was one of the important aims of verification?
To indicate which areas of philosophical or scientific enquiry are factually meaningless and thus not to be investigated.
240
What quotation did A. J Ayer say in support of verification theory?
"The criterion we use to test the genuineness of apparent statements of fact is the criterion of verifiability."
241
What quotation did A J Ayer use to highlight how meaningfulness was related to factual significance?
"The sentence expressing it may be emotionally significant to him; but it is not literally significant."
242
What example did A J Ayer give to highlight the impracticality of the weak verification principle?
He gave the example of general laws that cover an infinite number of cases, such as all human beings are mortal. It is impossible to demonstrate that all human beings are mortal in a strong sense without killing every human being who lives or will live in the future. This is clearly impossible to do, but no one would doubt the truth of the statement "human beings are mortal."
243
What quote did A J Ayer give to say that we can not make meaningful statements about metaphysical ideas?
"For we shall maintain that no statement which refers to a 'reality' transcending the limits of all possible sense-experience can possibly have any literal significance; from which it must follow that the labours of those who have striven to describe such a reality have all been devoted to the production of nonsense"
244
How did A J Ayer respond to the criticism of his theory of verification in his second edition?
1. He rejected the use of 'putative statements'
2. He changed his definition of the principle of verification to: 'A statement is held to be literally meaningful if and only if it is either analytic or empirically verifiable"
245
Why did Ayer change his definition of verification in his second edition?
Because he concluded that his distinction between strong and weak verification was not a real distinction as the strong form of verification could not apply to any statement, and Ayer had come to the conclusion that some statements could be conclusively verified.
246
What statements did Ayer say could be conclusively verified in his second edition?
'Basic statements', by which he meant a 'single experience'. He observed that single experiences are what happens and when you have the experience it is a reality. You may not be able to describe it accurately, but the experience itself is verified by its occurrence.
247
What quote did Ayer use to explain why he rejected his earlier definition of weak verification?
He said it was "Far too liberal, since it allows meaning to any statement whatsoever."
248
How did Ayer in his second edition try to solve the problem of verification?
He suggested two new criteria: directly and indirectly verifiable.
249
What quote does Ayer use to explain what is meant by directly verifiable?
He suggested that something is "Directly verifiable if it is either itself an observation-statement, or is such that in conjunction with one or more observation-statements it entails at least one observation-statement which is not deducible from these premises alone."
250
What does Ayer's quote about what is meant by directly verifiable mean?
By 'observation-statement' Ayer meant 'a statement which records an actual or possible observation.' So, for Ayer, direct verification meant a statement that is verifiable by an observation.
251
What does Ayer mean by indirectly verifiable?
A statement that is not directly verifiable or analytic and 'in conjunction with certain other premises it entails one or more directly verifiable statements which are not deducible from these other premises alone." This means that a statement could be verified if other directly verifiable evidence could support it.
252
How do black holes link to being indirectly verifiable?
Scientists predicted and demonstrated the existence of black holes in space. However, black holes in space cannot be directly observed; instead, scientists demonstrated their existence by looking at other evidence which suggested the existence of the thing that we call a black hole.
253
What quote did Swinburne use to say that strong verification is wrong?
It is "Generally agreed to be false" (Swinburne, 'God-Talk Is Not Evidently Nonsense)
254
What are the criticisms of Verificationism?
1. Verificationism is unverifiable
2. God-talk is eschatologically verifiable
3 strong verification excludes many areas of knowledge
4. The evidence problem
5. Meaningful but unverifiable
255
What does it mean when we criticise Verificationism for being unverifiable?
Many philosophers have pointed out that claiming 'statements are only meaningful if verifiable by sense-observation' is itself unverifiable. You cannot demonstrate this principle by sense-observation.
256
What does it mean when we criticise Verificationism because God-talk is eschatologically verifiable?
John Hick suggested that religion is not meaningless because its truth is verifiable in principle. He pointed out that the truth of God's existence is verifiable in principle if true (but not falsifiable if false), at the end of things. He uses the example of the Celestial City.
257
What is the parable of the Celestial City?
John Hick imagined two travellers on the journey through life to Celestial City. The journey is unavoidable. One traveller believes that there is a Celestial City at the end of the journey and views difficulties along the way as learning activities and good events as gifts from the ruler of the Celestial City. The other traveller does not believer there is a Celestial City. This traveller views good events as welcome and bad events have to be endured. Whichever one is right at the end of the journey, their views could be verified.
258
What is meant when we criticise strong Verificationism for excluding many areas of knowledge?
It is not possible to talk meaningfully about history using the strong verification principle as no sense-observation can confirm historical event. Swinburne also argued that strong verification excludes universal statements of any sort.
259
What quote did Ayer use to criticise strong verification?
"My 'strong' sense of the term 'verifiable' had no possible application, and in that case there was no need for me to qualify the other sense of 'verifiable' as weak; for on my own showing it was the only sense in which any proposition could conceivably be verified." (Language, Truth and Logic)
260
What is meant when we criticise Verificationism because of the evidence problem?
The problem with weak verification concerns what evidence can count in the verification assessment. While Ayer rejected accounts of religious experience, other researchers have suggested that there is clear evidence that such experiences happen and that a God causing the experience cannot be ruled out.
261
What does Richard Swinburne say about the evidence problem with regards to Verificationism?
He pointed out that there are many areas of debate where the problem would be getting people to agree what was admissible evidence to decide the matter. He refers to debates about the end of the world, the devil, or Poseidon.
262
What did Swinburne say about statements being meaningful but unverifiable in regards to Verificationism?
It is quite possible for a statement to be meaningful without being verifiable. He gives the example of toys in a cupboard. The toys only come out at night when no one observes them. The situation is meaningful even though it is fictitious and unverifiable.
263
How does Schrodinger's cat say about statements being meaningful but unverifiable in regards to Verificationism?
Schrodinger suggested that you imagine a cat in a box with a radioactive source. At any time the radioactive source could emit a radioactive particle that would kill the cat. Is the cat dead or alive? You cannot know. If you open the box to find out, you may trigger the release of the radioactive particle, thus killing the cat. Hence, whether the cat is alive or dead at any point is unverifiable.
264
What quote did Karl Popper use to sum up falsification?
"One can sum up all this by saying that the criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its falsifiability, or refutability, or testability."
265
What quote does Flew use to highlight that believers will allow nothing to falsify their beliefs?
"Now it often seems to people who are not religious as if there was no conceivable event of series of events that occurrence of which would be admitted by sophisticated religious people to be sufficient reason for conceding "There wasn't a God after all"
266
What happens in Flew's analogy of the two explorers in a jungle?
Two explorers in the jungle find a clearing in which weeds and flowers grow. One of them suggests that there is a gardener who looks after the clearing (there are flowers there); the other suggests that there is not. The two explorers set a watch; they even use dogs to hunt for the gardener and put up an electric fence to detect anyone entering. No one is detected.
267
What does one of the explorers in Flew's analogy eventually say?
"But there is a gardener, invisible, intangible, insensible to electric shocks, a gardener who has no scent and makes no sound, a gardener who comes secretly to look after the garden which he loves." At last the sceptic despairs, "But what remains of your original assertion? Just how does what you call an invisible, intangible, eternally elusive gardener differ from an imaginary gardener or even from no gardener at all?"
268
What does Flew's quote that God dies a "Death by a thousand qualifications" mean?
That when a religious believer is challenged about the existence of God, or God's nature, their response is to modify the way they talk about God to respond to the challenge. Flew argues that believers end up modifying their statements about God so much when challenge, that the statements no longer resemble the original claim about God. `
269
What are the implications of Flew's analogy of two explorers in the jungle?
It suggests that:
1. Faith claims are an incorrect and irrational interpretation of the world that goes against the evidence.
2. Religious believers refuse to accept that their beliefs are irrational as they keep qualifying them.
270
How do people respond to Flew's parable by saying that religious statements are falsifiable?
Religious belief statements are potentially falsifiable. Religious believers do not continually qualify their beliefs, instead religious believers clarify and state their beliefs clearly, e.g. the free will defence is an explanation of belief in God and free will, it cannot be dismissed as a qualification.
271
How does Peter Donovan respond to Flew's parable of the two explorers in the jungle?
He noted that "The sense of knowing is never on its own sufficient sign of knowledge...[but] if the sense of God fails, in the end, to count as knowledge of God, what is to be said about it? Is it of no further philosophical interest and to be discarded, like a pricked balloon, as being simply a great illusion? Nothing that has been said here leads to that conclusion. There is no justification for taking such an all-or-nothing view of religious experience."
272
What are the possible responses to Hare's parable of the lunatic?
- It would match anti-realist views of religion as a form of life
- However, religious belief is more than just an approach to life. For many believers it is a belief in reality as it truly is. For traditional religious believers belief statements are not ways of seeing the world, but they are factual claims about how the world is and God' relationship to the world.
273
What are the possible responses to Mitchell's parable of the Partisan and the Stranger?
- If religious statements are assertions about how the world is they are meaning have died a "death by a thousand falsification."
- However, a religious believer could equally well reply that religious beliefs are open to falsification and thus are meaningful.
274
What is John Wisdom's parable of the gardener?
Two people were looking at an overgrown garden. One of the observers notes how uncared for, overgrown and ill kept the garden is. Plants and weeds both grow there. The other observer points out signs of order in the garden such as beds of flowers and suggest that there is a gardener. However, no test can show whether a gardener has or has not been at work.
275
What does John Wisdom's parable of the gardener mean?
It was not a challenge to God's existence. Rather, it suggests that religious language makes statements that are reasonable, but are unverifiable. Therefore, the existence or nature of God might be beyond our normal methods of verification.
276
How does Flew respond to Hare's idea of bliks?
He accepted the idea of bliks, but he added that Christianity does not appear to be a blik, as it makes claims about the universe which seems to be what Flew called "assertions." They are saying that Good really did this and by implication this claim is testable or falsifiable.
277
What main points did Hare make about Bliks?
- There are sane and insane bliks, and holding the right blik matters
- Bliks are ways of seeing the world and the difference between different people's bliks cannot be solved by observation of what the world is like
278
What does Basil Mitchell say belief in God is?
A "significant article of faith"
279
What quote does Basil Mitchell use to argue that believers have to take care with their religious beliefs?
They need to take care that religious beliefs are not just: "Vacuous formulae (expressing, perhaps, a desire for reassurance) to which experience makes no difference and which makes no difference to life."
280
How did Flew respond to Mitchell?
He agreed with his comments about the way theologians address issues such as the problem of evil. However, he argued that, ultimately, if you keep questioning a theologian, explanations have to be qualified.
281
What does Basil Mitchell say about the problem of evil?
He argued that religious believers do accept evidence that counts against their ideas. He gives the example of the problem of evil, and suggest that believers do accept that this is a problem, but also they refuse to doubt their belief because they are committed believers.
282
What quote does Flew use to respond to Basil Mitchell's comments about the problem of evil?
"I still think that in the end, if relentlessly pursued, he will have to resort to the avoiding action of qualification. And there lies that death by a thousand qualifications, which would, I agree, constitute 'a failure in faith as well as in logic.'
283
How did Swinburne respond to the question of what can be falsified in regards to falsification ?
He argues that factual statements can be falsified. However, some existential statements cannot be falsified but this does not stop the statements being meaningful. His toy cupboard story illustrates this point.
284
How did Hare respond to the question of what can be falsified in response to falsification?
He suggested that while the falsification principle could apply to factual statements, they do not apply to existential statements. Because bliks are a set of values, they are not matters of facts that are falsifiable in the way science is.
285
How did A J Ayer respond to falsification?
Ayer rejected the ideas behind falsification, arguing that statements cannot be conclusively falsified any more than statements can be conclusively verified. He suggested that evidence may strongly suggest that a statement is false, but this does not make it logically impossible that a statement is true.
286
What quote does Ayer use to criticise falsification?
"Nor can we accept the suggestion that a sentence should be allowed to be factually significant if, and only if, it expresses something which is definitely confutable by experience."
287
How could you argue against Ayer's criticism of falsification?
It could be argued that Ayer slightly misrepresents Popper's views, as falsification is the "Criterion" of the scientific status of a theory is its falsifiability or refutability, or testability." Popper did not say that a theory had to be "definitely confutable by experience."
288
What quote did Karl Pooper use about confirming evidence?
"Confirming evidence should not count except when it is the result of a genuine test of the theory; and this means that it can be presented as a serious but unsuccessful attempt to falsify the theory."
289
What did Wittgenstein call speaking?
He said that speaking is an activity called "a form of life."
290
Do language games refer to language as a whole?
No, it is used very loosely to refer to the different ways in which language can be used. For example, Wittgenstein suggests that there can be a language game concerned with expressing sensations, story telling, telling jokes, thanking, asking, giving, and even cursing.
291
Are language games private?
No, a language game is something that is shared and used by groups of people. This challenges the idea of many philosophers that you can work out how tings are by starting from yourself.
292
What does language game theory suggest the problem is with theories such as verification?
The problem with theories like verification when applied to religious belief is that they are applying a language game that is more appropriate for discussing the physical world than believers' statements about God. Thus it is neither a helpful, or meaningful way to understand religious belief.
293
In what ways could it be argued that language games does not capture the essence of what it is to be religious?
It removes the link between claims made with language and empirical evidence. It leads to religious beliefs being understood in an antirealist manner. Clearly many believers would claim that some statements they make are true propositions that refer to how things empirically are.
294
In what way could it be argued that language games captures the essence of what it is to be religiou?
It could be argued that religious belief is an activity. It involves sharing a way of life and a language and a manner of speaking about the world and our place in it. For many religious believers, religion is not a philosophical enquiry into the nature of belief, but a shared community of life, culture, identity and practices.
295
Where did the ideas behind the via negativa come from?
The philosophy of Plotinus. He was at the centre of a movement that renewed interest in the philosophy of Plato. In Plato's philosophy the highest Form is the Form of the Good. In Plotinus thinking the Form of the Good is linked with God. Because of this, God is seen as being completely separate and beyond this world, just as the Form of the Good is the highest Form of Good, separate from the other Forms of the Good.
296
What is the function of myths?
To communicate truths- the values of a society. To communicate identity, experience and values of a community. To communicate values that preserve identity.
297
Why did the attempt to demythologise myths come to a halt?
Because the significance of myths came to be seen as the fact that they communicate values and beliefs in story form. The truths are thus expressed through the story; they are not so clearly separated from the story.
298
What are the two main issues raised by myths?
1. What qualifies as a myth?
| 2. How do myths communicate values and truths?
299
Why is it difficult to know what qualifies as a myth?
If myths communicate the value system of a community, the myth that is dominant is passed on. A problem arises if there are competing myths that all claim to communicate the truth. There are no agreed criteria for judging which myth communicates truth. Equally, classifying a story as a myth is a statement about the importance of a story. The definition of a story as a myth can therefore be a matter of great debate.
300
Why is it difficult to know how myths communicate values and truths?
For some, the fact that truths are communicated in mythological form suggests an evasion from clearly stating values for rational assessment. It is certainly the case that the understanding of the values communicated by myths can change subtly with time. If the meaning of a myth does chance, can myths communicate 'values' that are eternal truths?
301
Why did Aquinas reject the via negativa?
He rejected the negative use of language to describe God, since it does not say anything directly about God, and also because, he argues, when believers say "the living God" they mean more than "God is not dead."
302
What quote did Aquinas use to suggest that language means something concrete when applied to God?
"In regard to what they express, these words apply literally to God...But as regards their manner of expressing it, they don't apply literally to God; for their manner of expression is appropriate only to creatures."
303
What did Ian Ramsey mean when he suggested that words and titles applied to God function as 'models?
He meant that words tell us something about God, but not the whole story, just as models in everyday life help us to understand something.
304
What did Ian Ramsey say models always had to be?
Qualified.
305
Why do models need to be qualified?
Models, but nature, tend to be simpler than the original on which they are based.
306
What did Ian Ramsey mean by 'qualifier?'
He meant that every model has some limits, and does not communicate all of the depth and complexity of the original.
307
What did Ian Ramsey say a model could do?
He suggested that eventually a model can help a person to gain real insight and understand more clearly what is being talked about. Ramsey called this a disclosure.
