Religious Experience

Question 1

Way 1 in which Swinburne’s principles can be challenged

Answer 1

Religious experiences cannot be compared to ordinary experiences, as they are almost certainly about something which is by definition rare and unusual. Unlike ordinary experiences, experiences of God are widely accepted (and even highlighted by James) as being ineffable and therefore there are more opportunities for error when describing and interpreting these experiences correctly.

Question 2

Way 2 in which Swinburne’s principles can be challenged

Answer 2

Swinburne’s point is also predicated on a question of whether people are being truthful, however it does not follow that because they have been truthful that they have correctly grasped the truth of their perception. They are not empirical but are usually private to the individuals mind therefore it is unwise to give them the ‘benefit of the doubt’.

Question 3

Way 3 in which Swinburne’s principles can be challenged

Answer 3

Peter Donovan rightly distinguishes between feeling certain and being right- while a believer may feel certain that the religious experience comes from God, the claim is ultimately subjective.

Question 4

Way 4 in which Swinburne’s principles can be challenged

Answer 4

The contrasting truth claims that emerge across different faiths surely demonstrate the flaws with Swinburne’s principles- the contradictory interpretations cannot all be right.

Question 5

Way 5 in which Swinburne’s principles can be challenged

Answer 5

Psychologists refer to ‘inattentional blindness’- for example, we see a clear road instead of the car coming towards us. In religious experience we cam also be misled by our minds. We can be sincere in our beliefs about the experience, and even change our outlook as a result, but we can be sincerely mistaken.

Question 6

Way 6 in which Swinburne’s principles can be challenged

Answer 6

Finally, William James and others would argue that the testimony alone is not enough to prove an experience genuine. The after effects in terms of character are far more important.

Question 7

‘Religious experience shows that we can be united with something greater than ourselves.’ Discuss.

‘Individual religious experiences are never to be understood as union with a greater power.’ Discuss.

Outline the 3 LOAs, for each paragraph.

Answer 7

a) Firstly, due to the issue of the privacy of individual REs, it is difficult to
accept them as reliable and genuine proof of encounters with the
divine/‘something larger’/’a greater power’.

b) However, according to William James, although there are psychological elements
to religious experience, there is a commonality between descriptions of mystical experiences that could reasonably point towards a common source, the divine
(‘something larger’/’a greater power’).

c) Finally, while James presents a compelling argument that the ‘fruits’ of REs,
particularly conversions, can point to the high probability of the existence of a
‘greater power’, it is clear that it is best, from both an atheistic and theistic
perspective, to argue against all forms of religious experience.

Question 8

‘Religious experience shows that we can be united with something greater than ourselves.’ Discuss.

‘Individual religious experiences are never to be understood as union with a greater power.’ Discuss.

LOA: Firstly, due to the issue of the privacy of individual REs, it is difficult to
accept them as reliable and genuine proof of encounters with the
divine/‘something larger’/’a greater power’.

Outline the weaker view.

Answer 8

Supporting individual experiences with Swinburne’s principles
SWINBURNE uses his PRINCIPLES OF TESTIMONY AND CREDULITY to argue that religious experiences should be treated in the same way as other private, individual experiences, when we are more likely to believe they happened than not. Like James, he is careful not to suggest that the experience provides certainty of God’s existence, rather that the experience could provide probable evidence. (1) His principle of testimony states that we should assume people are telling the truth unless we have good reason to believe otherwise, for instance they are untrustworthy or under the influence of something. (2) Likewise, his principle of credulity states that unless we have overwhelming evidence to the contrary, we should believe that things are as they seem to be. There are cases where people
claim to have had an experience which subsequently turns out to be false, however this does not mean that all experiences are false.

Question 9

‘Religious experience shows that we can be united with something greater than ourselves.’ Discuss.

‘Individual religious experiences are never to be understood as union with a greater power.’ Discuss.

LOA: Firstly, due to the issue of the privacy of individual REs, it is difficult to accept them as reliable and genuine proof of encounters with the divine/‘something larger’/’a greater power’.

Outline the stronger view.

Answer 9

Challenging Swinburne’s principles:
(1) Religious experiences cannot be compared to ordinary experiences, as they are almost certainly about something which is by definition rare and unusual. Unlike
ordinary experiences, experiences of God are widely accepted (and even highlighted by James) as being ineffable, therefore there are more opportunities for error when describing and interpreting the experience correctly.
(2) Swinburne’s point is also predicated on a question of whether people are truthful, however it does not follow that because they have been truthful that they have correctly grasped the truth of their perception. They are not empirical but are usually private to the individual’s mind, hence it is unwise to give them the benefit
of the doubt.
(3) Peter Donovan rightly distinguishes between ‘feeling certain’ and ‘being right’ – while a believer may ‘feel certain’ that the religious experience originates from God, the claim is ultimately subjective.
(4) The conflicting truth claims that emerge from different religious experiences across different faiths surely demonstrate the flaws with Swinburne’s principles – the contradictory interpretations cannot all be right.
(5) Psychologists refer to ‘inattentional blindness’ – for example, we see a clear road instead of the car coming towards us.
In religious experiences we can also be misled by our minds. We can be sincere in our beliefs about the experience, and even change our outlook as a result, but we can be sincerely mistaken.
(6) Finally, William James and others would argue that the testimony alone is not sufficient to prove an experience genuine. The after effects (fruits) in terms of character and lifestyle are far more important.

Question 10

‘Religious experience shows that we can be united with something greater than ourselves.’ Discuss.

‘Individual religious experiences are never to be understood as union with a greater power.’ Discuss.

LOA: However, according to William James, although there are psychological elements
to religious experience, there is a commonality between descriptions of mystical experiences that could reasonably point towards a common source, the divine
(‘something larger’/’a greater power’).

Outline the weaker view.

Answer 10

According to James, religious experiences are not certain proof of God’s existence, but they could testify to the existence of “something larger” than ourselves. Psychological and physiological explanations (natural explanations) may be accepted, but they may not be the only explanations. With ‘reasonable probability’ they can point towards ‘the continuity of our consciousness’ that the ‘spiritual man’ can access in a way that the ‘ordinary man is shut off’. He draws an analogy with drunkenness, suggesting a mystic (such as Teresa of Avila) may be able to access different states of consciousness in the same way that a drunk is put into another state by alcohol. It is plausible that there is more to our existence that the physical and that James is right to entertain the possibility of a ‘wider, spiritual environment from which the ordinary man is shut off.’ This deep-seated sense of the divine is also argued by Calvin (sensus divinitatis). Mystical experiences give a sense of ‘oneness’/unity with the divine and the renowned 16th century mystic and Catholic nun, St Teresa of Avila, likened them to being like a sponge saturated with water: just as a sponge may be saturated with water, so too the soul absorbs and is saturated by God. The four common features are: Passivity (the individual is not in control, suggesting there is something external at work), ineffability (the experience is indescribable, showing it is not like an ordinary experience), noetic quality (knowledge is gained, indicating unity with the divine because there is no other explanation as to how this insight is gained) and transience (the experience is short-lived, but the life-changing impact on the individual is observable, for example they are more compassionate or charitable). It would be a fallacy to claim that James was arguing that these experiences are all ‘real’ or of divine origin. Rather, these features show that the experience is ‘genuine’ (the experient is making an honest claim).

Question 11

‘Religious experience shows that we can be united with something greater than ourselves.’ Discuss.

‘Individual religious experiences are never to be understood as union with a greater power.’ Discuss.

LOA: However, according to William James, although there are psychological elements
to religious experience, there is a commonality between descriptions of mystical experiences that could reasonably point towards a common source, the divine
(‘something larger’/’a greater power’).

Outline the stronger view.

Answer 11

Challenging the four common features (PINT)
(1) the four common features of mystical experiences are evident not because they point to a common source (the divine), rather they originate in the mind, which reacts in which the same way. Although those involved may be convinced and sincere, they could be sincerely wrong.
(2) While it may feel as though we are not in control of the experience (passivity), it could be our own unconscious mind deluding the conscious self. Given the nature of the unconscious mind, there would be no way of us knowing that this is the case.
Indeed, participants in Persinger’s God Helmet experiment had feelings of something greater beyond themselves, but this was the product of electromagnetic fields in the helmet, not of God.
(3) Rather than pointing to a common source, the ineffability of mystical experiences merely shows how untrustworthy the accounts really are.
(4) Transiency could point towards the reliability of mystical experiences, because of the observable life-long impact that the experience has on the individual despite the experience itself being short-lived. However, this carries little weight, as Russell rightly notes that a change in character could be due to several
factors or non-religious influences. It is perfectly plausible for a novel to have a similar effect.

Question 12

‘Religious experience shows that we can be united with something greater than ourselves.’ Discuss.

‘Individual religious experiences are never to be understood as union with a greater power.’ Discuss.

LOA: Finally, while James presents a compelling argument that the ‘fruits’ of REs, particularly conversions, can point to the high probability of the existence of a ‘greater power’, it is clear that it is best, from both an atheistic and theistic perspective, to argue against all forms of religious experience.

Outline the weaker view.

Answer 12

SCIENTIFIC APPROACH: According to James, ‘genuine’ experiences can be tested by the
‘fruits’ (effects) rather than the ‘roots’ (origins) of the experience. For this reason, James may be described as an empiricist, pragmatist and pluralist. He is an empiricist as, although the experience itself cannot be empirically verified, the result of the experience can provide empirical data. He is a pragmatist as he believes that truth is not fixed, rather what is ‘true’ relates to whatever has value for us and works in real life - therefore the effects of the experience are enough to conclude that the experience is genuine. Finally, he is a pluralist as his research led him to conclude that there is truth in all faiths, given that positive effects can be seen in religious experiences from all faiths.
CONVERSION: Arguably conversion experiences provide the strongest ‘evidence’ for the divine, as they often produce the most extreme observable-effects (empirical data). For example, in the book of Acts, St Paul describes himself as having been ‘re-born’ following his conversion on the road to Damascus. Despite being an ardent persecutor of early Christians,
he proceeded to became one of the most influential missionary figures in the Christian faith.
EMPIRICALLY TESTED: Like James, St Teresa of Avila (16th century mystic and Catholic nun) wrote of the need for religious experiences to be subject to tests to determine whether they are genuine: this includes whether there is a positive change in the person, whether the individual is left at peace rather than disturbed, and whether the experience fits with the teachings of the church. Galatians 5:22-23 writes of the ‘fruit of the spirit’, including love, peace and self-control, suggesting that when one has come into contact with God, this leaves
observable effects. It is therefore not completely absurd to conclude that they could point towards ‘something larger’.

Question 13

‘Religious experience shows that we can be united with something greater than ourselves.’ Discuss.

‘Individual religious experiences are never to be understood as union with a greater power.’ Discuss.

LOA: Finally, while James presents a compelling argument that the ‘fruits’ of REs, particularly conversions, can point to the high probability of the existence of a ‘greater power’, it is clear that it is best, from both an atheistic and theistic perspective, to argue against all forms of religious experience.

Outline the stronger view.

Answer 13

Challenging James’ empiricism
As Bertrand Russell rightly acknowledges, even a good effect is not necessarily evidence, as good effects on character can also be produced by fictional characters in books. - James claims that the effects of the experience is empirical data, however this data is not direct enough – unconscious, irrational and subjective experience is not something that can be made accessible to another individual. It is therefore meaningless.
NUANCED CONCLUSION: CAROLINE FRANKS DAVIS uses a cumulative argument to suggest that, along with other arguments for the existence of God, evidence from religious
experience may just tip the balance in favour of there being a God. However, Antony Flew criticises the use of religious experience to add to the cumulative evidence for God. He says that ten leaky buckets are just as useless as one. In a similar way, all arguments for the existence of God have faults, simply adding them together does not make one better argument. It is not just atheists that are cynical of REs. Some theists, such as those who accept a non-interventionist approach to divine activity in the world, do not accept the view
that REs point to the divine/something larger/God. In fact, in many ways REs present a problem for a benevolent God – why would God interact with some and not others? What of those that need His help most yet God is seemingly silent? It is better to dismiss REs altogether.

Question 14

‘Corporate religious experiences are less reliable than individual religious experiences.’ Discuss.

Outline the 3 LOAs, for each paragraph.

Answer 14

a)Firstly, due to the issue of the privacy of individual REs, it is difficult to accept them as reliable and genuine proof of encounters with the
divine/‘something larger.’

b) Although the cumulative testimony of corporate experiences avoids the issue of privacy, it is clear that corporate REs are even less reliable than individual REs.

c)Finally, WILLIAM JAMES’ analysis of mystical and conversion experiences could suggest that
some individual experiences are reliable. However, it is most compelling to argue that religious experiences in general are unreliable.

Question 15

‘Corporate religious experiences are less reliable than individual religious experiences.’ Discuss.

LOA: Firstly, due to the issue of the privacy of individual REs, it is difficult to accept them as reliable and genuine proof of encounters with the divine/‘something larger.’

Outline the weaker view.

Answer 15

Supporting individual experiences with Swinburne’s principles
SWINBURNE uses his PRINCIPLES OF TESTIMONY AND CREDULITY to argue that religious experiences should be treated in the same way as other private, individual experiences, when we are more likely to believe they happened than not. Like James, he is careful not to suggest that the experience provides certainty of God’s existence, rather that the experience could provide probable
evidence.
(1) His principle of testimony states that we should assume people are telling the truth unless we have good reason to believe otherwise, for instance they are untrustworthy or under the influence of something.
(2) Likewise, his principle of credulity states that unless we have overwhelming evidence to the contrary, we should believe that things are as they seem to be. There are cases where people claim to have had an experience which subsequently turns out to be false, however this does not mean that all experiences are false.

Question 16

Corporate religious experiences are less reliable than individual religious experiences.’ Discuss.

LOA: Firstly, due to the issue of the privacy of individual REs, it is difficult to accept them as reliable and genuine proof of encounters with the divine/‘something larger.’

Outline the stronger view.

Answer 16

Challenging Swinburne’s principles:
(1) Religious experiences cannot be compared to ordinary experiences, as they are almost certainly about something which is by definition rare and unusual. Unlike ordinary experiences, experiences of God are widely accepted (and even highlighted by James) as being ineffable, therefore there are more opportunities for error when describing and interpreting the experience correctly.
(2) Swinburne’s point is also predicated on a question of whether
people are truthful, however it does not follow that because they have been truthful that they have correctly grasped the truth of their perception. They are not empirical but are usually private to the individual’s mind, hence it is unwise to give them the benefit of the doubt.
(3) Peter Donovan rightly distinguishes between ‘feeling certain’ and ‘being right’ – while a believer may ‘feel certain’ that the religious experience originates from God, the claim is
ultimately subjective.
(4) The conflicting truth claims that emerge from different religious experiences across different faiths surely demonstrate the
flaws with Swinburne’s principles – the contradictory interpretations cannot all be right.
(5) Psychologists refer to ‘inattentional blindness’ – for example,
we see a clear road instead of the car coming towards us. In religious
experiences we can also be misled by our minds. We can be sincere in our beliefs about the experience, and even change our outlook as a result, but we can be sincerely mistaken.
(6) Finally, William James and others would argue
that the testimony alone is not sufficient to prove an experience genuine. The after-effects (fruits) in terms of character and lifestyle are far more important.

Question 17

‘Corporate religious experiences are less reliable than individual religious experiences.’ Discuss.

LOA: Although the cumulative testimony of corporate experiences avoids the issue of privacy, it is clear that corporate REs are even less reliable than individual REs.

Outline the weaker view.

Answer 17

Supporting Corporate experiences:
(1) there are many witnesses to a corporate religious experience, which makes the cumulative testimony more convincing.
(2) there are empirical and observable effects of corporate experiences. For example, at Pentecost, the apostles were heard speaking in many languages.
(3) Swinburne’s principle of credulity could defend the reliability of corporate experiences. We should believe that things are as they seem to be if there is no overwhelming evidence to the
contrary.
(4) If one can accept individual experiences as ‘genuine’, one should also be open to the validity of corporate ones. It is logical to suggest that a deity would reveal themselves to humans in a range of ways, not just on an individual basis.

Question 18

‘Corporate religious experiences are less reliable than individual religious experiences.’ Discuss.

LOA: Although the cumulative testimony of corporate experiences avoids the issue of privacy, it is clear that corporate REs are even less reliable than individual REs.

Outline the stronger view.

Answer 18

Challenging Corporate experiences:
(1) whilst the fact that there are multiple witnesses to the experience, this could be explained away by social conformity (wanting to fit in) or mass hysteria (getting caught up in the emotion of the moment). (2) the kinds of people attracted to evangelical/charismatic worship are already pre-disposed to this sort of behaviour and the effect of group suggestion.
(3) some corporate experiences could have been easily induced through music and repetition, creating a sort of group hallucination.
(4) there is a longer tradition of individual religious experiences, whereas corporate experiences are relatively recent events – they notably increased after the first Toronto Blessing in the 1990s at the Toronto Airport Church.
(5) some corporate experiences, such as the Toronto Blessing, is closely associated with very specific types of Christianity such as Pentecostalists and Born-again Christians.
Nuance: perhaps some corporate experiences are genuine, such as Pentecost, where the experience of the Holy Spirit serves a clear purpose (to allow the apostles to speak different languages in order to evangelise). However, in cases such as the Toronto Blessing where individuals are said to speak in tongues, this serves no obvious purpose. Why would God choose to communicate in a way that no one can make sense of? Why would God reveal himself in a way that reveals no knowledge and that seems to set reason aside? Some Christians even attribute it to demonic activity.

Question 19

‘Corporate religious experiences are less reliable than individual religious experiences.’ Discuss.

LOA: Finally, WILLIAM JAMES’ analysis of mystical and conversion experiences could suggest that some individual experiences are reliable. However, it is most compelling to argue that
religious experiences in general are unreliable.

Outline the weaker view.

Answer 19

Supporting with William James (‘The Varieties of Religious Experience’) James didn’t comment on corporate experiences, only mystical REs and conversion REs. According to James, ‘genuine’ experiences can be tested by the ‘fruits’ (effects) rather than the ‘roots’ (origins) of the experience. For this reason, James may be described as an EMPIRICIST, PRAGMATIST AND PLURALIST. He is
an empiricist as, although the experience itself cannot be empirically verified, the result of the experience can provide empirical data. He is a pragmatist as he believes that truth is not fixed, rather what is ‘true’ relates to whatever has value for us and works in real life - therefore the effects of the experience are enough to conclude that the experience is genuine. Finally, he is a pluralist as his research led him to conclude that there is truth in all faiths, given that positive effects can be seen in religious experiences from all faiths. Arguably CONVERSION EXPERIENCES provide the strongest ‘evidence’ for the divine, as they often produce the most extreme observable-effects (empirical data). For example, in the book of Acts, St Paul
describes himself as having been ‘re-born’ following his conversion on the road to Damascus. Despite being an ardent persecutor of early Christians, he proceeded to became one of the most influential missionary figures in the Christian faith. James notes that although there are psychological elements to religious experience, there is a commonality between descriptions of MYSTICAL EXPERIENCES that could reasonably point towards a common source, the divine (‘something larger’): passivity, ineffability, noetic quality and
transience – explain these features applied to Teresa of Avila’s mystical experience of an angel piercing her with a golden spear leaving her with a feeling of immense love.

Question 20

‘Corporate religious experiences are less reliable than individual religious experiences.’ Discuss.

LOA: Finally, WILLIAM JAMES’ analysis of mystical and conversion experiences could suggest that some individual experiences are reliable. However, it is most compelling to argue that
religious experiences in general are unreliable.

Outline the stronger view.

Answer 20

Challenging his focus on the fruits/effects of the experience: As Bertrand Russell rightly acknowledges, even a good effect is not necessarily evidence, as good effects on character can also be produced by fictional characters in books. James claims that the effects of the experience is empirical data, however this
data is not direct enough – unconscious, irrational and subjective experience is not something that can be made accessible to another individual. It is therefore meaningless.

Challenging his common criteria of mystical experiences:
the four common features of mystical experiences are evident not because they point to a common source (the divine), rather they originate in the mind, which reacts in which the same way. Although those involved may be convinced and sincere, they could be sincerely wrong. - While it may feel as though we are not in
control of the experience (passivity), it could be our own unconscious mind deluding the conscious self. Given the nature of the unconscious mind, there would be no way of us knowing that this is the case. Indeed, participants in Persinger’s God Helmet experiment had feelings of something greater beyond themselves, but this was the product of electromagnetic fields in the helmet, not of God. - Rather than pointing to a common source, the ineffability of mystical experiences merely shows how untrustworthy the accounts really are. - Transiency could point towards the reliability of mystical experiences, because of the observable life-long impact that the experience has on the individual despite the experience itself being short-lived. However, this carries little weight, as Russell rightly notes that a change in character could be due to several factors or non-religious influences. It is perfectly plausible for a novel to have a similar effect.

NUANCED CONCLUSION: CAROLINE FRANKS DAVIS uses a cumulative argument to suggest that, along with other arguments for the existence of God, evidence from religious experience may just tip the balance in favour of there being a God. However, Antony Flew criticises the use of religious experience to add to the
cumulative evidence for God. He says that ten leaky buckets are just as useless as one. In a similar way, all arguments for the existence of God have faults, simply adding them together does not make one better argument. It is not just atheists that are cynical of REs. Some theists, such as those who accept a non-interventionist approach to divine activity in the world, do not accept the view that REs point to the divine/something larger/God. In fact, in many ways REs present a problem for a benevolent God – why would God interact with some and not others? What of those that need His help most yet God is seemingly silent? It is better to dismiss REs altogether.

Question 21

‘Conversions are not genuine examples of religious experience.’
Discuss.

Outline the 3 LOAs, for each paragraph.

Answer 21

a) Firstly, Swinburne’s principles of credulity and testimony could support the probability that conversions are genuine encounters with the divine, however both principles are ultimately too simplistic and fail to consider the fact that individuals may have misinterpreted their experience.

b) Secondly, there are many psychological and physiological explanations for conversion REs, which would explain why an individual may falsely believe them to be ‘genuine’ encounters with ‘something larger’/the divine.

c) Finally, while William James offers the most nuanced and unique approach to conversion REs, allowing for a scientific approach that leaves open the possibility of the divine, he ultimately fails to prove that conversions are ‘genuine’. It is most compelling to argue that religious experiences in general are unreliable.

Question 22

‘Conversions are not genuine examples of religious experience.’
Discuss.

LOA: Firstly, Swinburne’s principles of credulity and testimony could support the probability that conversions are genuine encounters with the divine, however both principles are ultimately too simplistic and fail to consider the fact that individuals may have misinterpreted their experience.

Outline the weaker view.

Answer 22

Supporting individual experiences with Swinburne’s principles
SWINBURNE uses his PRINCIPLES OF TESTIMONY AND CREDULITY to argue that religious experiences should be treated in the same way as other private, individual experiences, when we are more likely to believe they happened than not. Like James, he is careful not to suggest that the experience provides certainty of God’s
existence, rather that the experience could provide probable evidence. (1) His principle of testimony states that we should assume people are telling the truth unless we have good reason to believe otherwise, for instance they are untrustworthy or under the influence of something. (2) Likewise, his principle of credulity states that unless we have overwhelming evidence to the contrary, we
should believe that things are as they seem to be. There are cases where people claim to have had an experience which subsequently turns out to be false, however this does not mean that all experiences are false.

Question 23

‘Conversions are not genuine examples of religious experience.’
Discuss.

LOA: Firstly, Swinburne’s principles of credulity and testimony could support the probability that conversions are genuine encounters with the divine, however both principles are ultimately too simplistic and fail to consider the fact that individuals may have misinterpreted their experience.

Outline the stronger view.

Answer 23

Challenging Swinburne’s principles:
(1) Religious experiences cannot be compared to ordinary experiences, as they are almost certainly about something which is by definition rare and unusual. Unlike ordinary experiences, experiences of God are widely accepted (and even highlighted by James) as being ineffable, therefore there are more opportunities for error when describing and interpreting the experience correctly.
(2) Swinburne’s point is also predicated on a question of whether
people are truthful, however it does not follow that because they have been truthful that they have correctly grasped the truth of their perception. They are not empirical but are usually private to the individual’s mind, hence it is unwise to give them the benefit of the doubt.
(3) Peter Donovan rightly distinguishes between ‘feeling certain’ and ‘being right’ – while a believer may ‘feel certain’ that the religious experience originates from God, the claim is
ultimately subjective.
(4) The conflicting truth claims that emerge from different religious experiences across different faiths surely demonstrate the
flaws with Swinburne’s principles – the contradictory interpretations cannot all be right.
(5) Psychologists refer to ‘inattentional blindness’ – for example,
we see a clear road instead of the car coming towards us. In religious
experiences we can also be misled by our minds. We can be sincere in our beliefs about the experience, and even change our outlook as a result, but we can be sincerely mistaken.
(6) Finally, William James and others would argue
that the testimony alone is not sufficient to prove an experience genuine. The after-effects (fruits) in terms of character and lifestyle are far more important.

Question 24

‘Conversions are not genuine examples of religious experience.’
Discuss.

LOA: Secondly, there are many psychological and physiological explanations for conversion REs, which would explain why an individual may falsely believe them to be ‘genuine’ encounters with ‘something larger’/the divine.

Outline the weaker view.

Answer 24

1) The sheer number of conversions suggests that there must be some truth behind the claims.
2)it’s logical to suppose that a deity would interact with people in ways that they understand. There’s evidence of God doing this through the person of Jesus (God incarnate)

Question 25

‘Conversions are not genuine examples of religious experience.’
Discuss.

LOA: Secondly, there are many psychological and physiological explanations for conversion REs, which would explain why an individual may falsely believe them to be ‘genuine’ encounters with ‘something larger’/the divine.

Outline the stronger view.

Answer 25

1)There are no universal common set of characteristics like there are with mystical experiences.
2)Their private, individualistic nature mean that they cannot be measured and verified in the same way that corporate (group) experiences can.
They can be explained PSYCHOLOGICALLY, as a product of the mind: 1. it could simply be a result of a wish-fulfilment - an individual seeking a worldview that provides comfort, or an escape from the
difficulties that life might bring.
2. Freud believed it could be the result of a desire to seek
forgiveness for repressed guilt. Freud would disagree with James’ use of St Teresa of Avila’s criteria, as he argued that the church was the cause of much psychological and subconscious guilt, repressed
in the super-ego, which resurfaced in repetitive rituals, such as prayer
3. the individual commonly has an experience that aligns with the religion that they grew up with/that is already embedded into
their society, suggesting it is a product of their mind.
4. 19th century psychologist Edwin Starbuck studied evangelical Christian conversions and concluded that conversions have a psychological rather than supernatural explanation. Since most conversions happen at the same stage in life, between 15 and 24 years old, they are a normal adolescent phenomenon; they come from a feeling of incompleteness and the psyche’s desire for a sense of identity, which are ‘normal’ feelings experienced in adolescent development.
5. Psychologists refer to ‘inattentional blindness’ – for
example, we see a clear road instead of the car coming towards us. In religious experiences we can also be misled by our minds. We can be sincere in our beliefs about the experience, and even change
our outlook as a result, but we can be sincerely mistaken.
They can be explained PHYSIOLOGICALLY, as a product of the body. 1.Changes in hormones: affect brain function and could account for hearing voices, visions or other mystical experiences.
2. Drugs, alcohol or vitamin deficiencies are known to have mind-altering effects, some of which are long-lasting. For example, some ancient mystics were known to have followed a poor diet which today, neuroscientists link to vitamin B deficiency, a cause of hallucinations. It is possible that the visions experienced by famous mystics such as Julian of Norwich or Teresa of Avila were simply caused by vitamin deficiency. Bertrand Russell claimed that scientific investigation concludes there is no distinction between a man who eats littles and sees God and the man who drinks much and see
snakes.
3. Richard Dawkins has suggested that religious ideas may be ‘memes’. Similar to the way that genes work, these are ideas that as we have evolved have been useful to our survival, hence our
brain accepts them more readily. They are produced within our brains. Dawkins refers to religion as a ‘virus of the mind’. Religious experience can be explained entirely by reference to the physical
brain.
4. Biological or neurological factors, such as electrical activity in the brain, could account for the emotions and sensations of religious experience. In 1996, psychologist Dr Persinger used the
‘God Helmet’ to stimulate the temporal lobes and found that participants had sensations similar to religious experiences, for instance they felt a presence outside of themselves, much like William James’ description of ‘passivity’. However, Persinger’s experiments are not widely accepted because the results were inconclusive and have not been able to be replicated.
5. Those who support a psychological explanation for religious experience often cite the cause of St Paul’s symptoms as epilepsy. The effects Paul felt, such as seeing a bright light, becoming unconscious and a temporary loss of sight, are also symptoms of temporal lobe epilepsy. Later in his writings, Paul refers to a
‘thorn in his side’, which could be a metaphor for recurring illness, such as epilepsy.

Question 26

‘Conversions are not genuine examples of religious experience.’
Discuss.

LOA: Finally, while William James offers the most nuanced and unique approach to conversion REs, allowing for a scientific approach that leaves open the possibility of the divine, he ultimately fails to prove that conversions are ‘genuine’. It is most compelling to argue that religious experiences in general are unreliable.

Outline the weaker view.

Answer 26

SCIENTIFIC APPROACH: According to James, ‘genuine’ experiences can be tested by the ‘fruits’ (effects) rather than the ‘roots’ (origins) of the experience. For this reason, James may be described as an empiricist, pragmatist and pluralist. He is an empiricist as,
although the experience itself cannot be empirically verified, the result of the experience can provide empirical data. He is a pragmatist as he believes that truth is not fixed, rather what is ‘true’ relates to whatever has value for us and works in real life - therefore the effects of the experience are enough to conclude that the experience is genuine. Finally, he is a pluralist as his research led him to conclude that there is truth in all faiths, given that positive effects can be seen in religious experiences from all faiths.
CONVERSION: Arguably conversion experiences provide the strongest ‘evidence’ for the divine, as they often produce the most extreme observable-effects (empirical data). For example, in the book of Acts, St Paul describes himself as having been ‘re-born’
following his conversion on the road to Damascus. Despite being an ardent persecutor of early Christians, he proceeded to became one of the most influential missionary figures in the Christian faith. EMPIRICALLY TESTED: Like James, St Teresa of Avila (16th century mystic and Catholic nun) wrote of the need for religious experiences to be subject to tests to determine whether they are genuine: this includes whether there is a positive change in the person, whether the individual is left at peace rather than disturbed, and whether the experience fits with the teachings of the church. - Galatians 5:22-23 writes of the ‘fruit of the spirit’, including love, peace and self-control,
suggesting that when one has come into contact with God, this leaves observable effects. It is therefore not completely absurd to conclude that they could point towards ‘something larger’

Question 27

‘Conversions are not genuine examples of religious experience.’
Discuss.

LOA: Finally, while William James offers the most nuanced and unique approach to conversion REs, allowing for a scientific approach that leaves open the possibility of the divine, he ultimately fails to prove that conversions are ‘genuine’. It is most compelling to argue that religious experiences in general are unreliable.

Outline the stronger view.

Answer 27

Challenging his focus on the fruits/effects of the experience: As Bertrand Russell rightly acknowledges, even a good effect is not necessarily evidence, as good effects on character can also be produced by fictional characters in books. James claims that the
effects of the experience is empirical data, however this data is not direct enough –unconscious, irrational and subjective experience is not something that can be made accessible to another individual. It is therefore meaningless.
NUANCED CONCLUSION: CAROLINE FRANKS DAVIS uses a cumulative argument to suggest that, along with other arguments for the existence of God, evidence from religious experience may just tip the balance in favour of there being a God. However,
Antony Flew criticises the use of religious experience to add to the cumulative evidence for God. He says that ten leaky buckets are just as useless as one. In a similar way, all arguments for the existence of God have faults, simply adding them together does not make one better argument. It is not just atheists that are cynical of REs. Some theists, such as those who accept a non-interventionist approach to divine activity in the world, do not accept the view that REs point to the divine/something larger/God. In fact, in many ways REs present a problem for a benevolent God – why would God interact with
some and not others? What of those that need His help most yet God is seemingly silent? It is better to dismiss REs altogether

Question 28

Critically discuss the nature of mystical experience.

Outline the 3 LOAs, for each paragraph.

Answer 28

a) Firstly, one must acknowledge that, if accepted, mystical experiences allow for an interpretation of reality that is not reductionist. It is perfectly reasonable to consider the notion that there is more to reality than the material, observable world and that a divine being would seek unity with its creation.

b) Secondly, William James’ contention that mystical experience is typically marked by four common characteristics (ineffability, noetic quality, transiency and passivity) could reasonably point towards a common source, the divine (‘something larger’/’a greater power’). However, these characteristics are easily undermined.

c) Finally, while James presents a compelling argument that the ‘fruits’ of mystical experiences can point to the high probability of the existence of a ‘greater power’, it is best, from both an atheistic and theistic perspective, to argue against all forms of religious experience.

Question 29

Critically discuss the nature of mystical experience.

LOA: Firstly, one must acknowledge that, if accepted, mystical experiences allow for an interpretation of reality that is not reductionist. It is perfectly reasonable to consider the notion that there is more to reality than the material, observable world and that a divine being would seek unity with its creation.

Outline the weaker view.

Answer 29

Not all RES are mystical - mystical REs give a sense of oneness – unity with divinity/God/ nature. It is fair to say that mystical experiences could be explained materially, and that the sense of peace that one gains is merely a wish-fulfilment – a product of one’s own mind
(psychological explanation) desiring the comfort of a cosmic father-figure.Additionally, there are numerous plausible physiological explanations: Changes in hormones affect brain function and could account for hearing voices, visions or other mystical experiences. Drugs, alcohol, or vitamin deficiencies are known to have
mind-altering effects, some of which are long-lasting. For example, some ancient mystics were known to have followed a poor diet which today, neuroscientists link to vitamin B deficiency, a cause of hallucinations. It is possible that the visions experienced by famous mystics such as Julian of Norwich or Teresa of Avila were simply caused by vitamin deficiency. Bertrand Russell claimed that scientific investigation concludes there is no distinction between a man
who eats littles and sees God and the man who drinks much and see snakes.

Question 30

Critically discuss the nature of mystical experience.

LOA: Firstly, one must acknowledge that, if accepted, mystical experiences allow for an interpretation of reality that is not reductionist. It is perfectly reasonable to consider the notion that there is more to reality than the material, observable world and that a divine being would seek unity with its creation.

Outline the stronger view.

Answer 30

However, There is a long history of mysticism in all the major world faiths, and much scholarly contribution, which would suggest that it is worth of study and could point to the divine.The volume of these experiences makes them difficult to explain by other methods. It is
coherent to think that a deity would allow people to have direct experience of this nature, since humans were created for personal relationships.
* German philosopher SCHLEIERMACHER argues that there is more to our existence than the physical, but if we stop to reflect, we encounter something other. This deep-seated sense of the divine is also argued by JOHN CALVIN (sensus divinitatis –synoptic link to knowledge of God topic – supported by St Paul with the altar to the
unknown God).
* A scholar named HAPPOLD undertook a student of mystical experiences and he drew several conclusions in his book, ‘Mysticism, A study and Anthology’. Mystics understood this world as being only a part of ultimate reality – the world comes from a ‘Divine Ground’. This ‘Divine Ground’ can be known intuitively, but not rationally. We are made up of our ‘ego’ and our ‘eternal self’ (the part that has the
divine spark and ability to connect with deeper truths). Our purpose is to discover our true ‘eternal self’ and unite with the ‘Divine Ground’.
* Some scholars argue that RUDOLF OTTO’s understanding of ‘numinous experiences’ are a subset of mystical experience, while others put them in a class of their own (showing how difficult it is to discuss the nature of mystical experience).Otto challenges the idea that religious experience is intimate/shows the unity of all things. In his book, ‘The Idea of the Holy’, he describes what he calls a numinous experience. These experiences are experiences of awe and wonder in the presence of an almighty God. In it, we are not so much united with God but aware of our own insignificance in his presence. Otto uses the phrase ‘Mysterium: tremendum et
fascinans’ (mysterious, terrifying and fascinating) to describe these experiences. He argues that all RE is numinous in nature.
POTENTIAL COUNTER: KANT’S NOUMENA/PHENOMENA WOULD SUGGEST THAT WE CANNOT EXPERIENCE GOD, WHO IS NOUMENA.

Question 31

Critically discuss the nature of mystical experience.

LOA: Secondly, William James’ contention that mystical experience is typically marked by four common characteristics (ineffability, noetic quality, transiency and passivity) could reasonably point towards a common source, the divine (‘something larger’/’a greater power’). However, these characteristics are easily undermined.

Outline the weaker view.

Answer 31

According to James, mystical experiences are not certain proof of God’s existence, but they could testify to the existence of “something larger” than ourselves. Psychological and physiological explanations (natural explanations) may be accepted, but they may not be
the only explanations. With ‘reasonable probability’ they can point towards ‘the continuity of our consciousness’ that the ‘spiritual man’ can access in a way that the ‘ordinary man is shut off’. He draws an analogy with drunkenness, suggesting a mystic (such as TERESA OF AVILA) may be able to access different states of consciousness in the
same way that a drunk is put into another state by alcohol. It is plausible that there is more to our existence that the physical and that James is right to entertain the possibility of a ‘wider, spiritual environment from which the ordinary man is shut off.’ This deep-seated sense of the divine is also argued by Calvin (sensus divinitatis). Mystical experiences give a sense of ‘oneness’/unity with the divine and the renowned 16th century mystic and Catholic nun, St Teresa of Avila, likened them to being like a sponge saturated with water: just as a sponge may be saturated with water, so too the
soul absorbs and is saturated by God. The four common features are: Passivity (the individual is not in control, suggesting there is something external at work), ineffability(the experience is indescribable, showing it is not like an ordinary experience), noetic
quality (knowledge is gained, indicating unity with the divine because there is no other explanation as to how this insight is gained) and transience (the experience is short-lived, but the life-changing impact on the individual is observable, for example they are more
compassionate or charitable). It would be a fallacy to claim that James was arguing that these experiences are all ‘real’ or of divine origin. Rather, these features show that the experience is ‘genuine’ (the experient is making an honest claim).

Question 32

Critically discuss the nature of mystical experience.

LOA: Secondly, William James’ contention that mystical experience is typically marked by four common characteristics (ineffability, noetic quality, transiency and passivity) could reasonably point towards a common source, the divine (‘something larger’/’a greater power’). However, these characteristics are easily undermined.

Outline the stronger view.

Answer 32

Challenging the four common features (PINT)
(1) the four common features of mystical experiences are evident not because they point to a common source (the divine), rather they originate in the mind, which reacts in which the same way. Although those involved may be convinced and sincere, they could be sincerely wrong.
(2) While it may feel as though we are not in control of the experience (passivity), it could be our own unconscious mind deluding the conscious self. Given the nature of the unconscious mind, there would be no way of us knowing that this is the case.
Indeed, participants in Persinger’s God Helmet experiment had feelings of something greater beyond themselves, but this was the product of electromagnetic fields in the helmet, not of God.
(3) Rather than pointing to a common source, the ineffability of mystical experiences merely shows how untrustworthy the accounts really are.
(4) Transiency could point towards the reliability of mystical experiences, because of the observable life-long impact that the experience has on the individual despite the experience itself being short-lived. However, this carries little weight, as Russell rightly notes that a change in character could be due to several
factors or non-religious influences. It is perfectly plausible for a novel to have a similar effect.

Question 33

Critically discuss the nature of mystical experience.

LOA: Finally, while James presents a compelling argument that the ‘fruits’ of mystical experiences can point to the high probability of the existence of a ‘greater power’, it is best, from both an atheistic and theistic perspective, to argue against all forms of religious experience.

Outline the weaker view.

Answer 33

Supporting with William James (‘The Varieties of Religious Experience’) James didn’t comment on corporate experiences, only mystical REs and conversion REs. According to James, ‘genuine’ experiences can be tested by the ‘fruits’ (effects) rather than the ‘roots’ (origins) of the experience. For this reason, James may be described as an EMPIRICIST, PRAGMATIST AND PLURALIST. He is
an empiricist as, although the experience itself cannot be empirically verified, the result of the experience can provide empirical data. He is a pragmatist as he believes that truth is not fixed, rather what is ‘true’ relates to whatever has value for us and works in real life - therefore the effects of the experience are enough to conclude that the experience is genuine. Finally, he is a pluralist as his research led him to conclude that there is truth in all faiths, given that positive effects can be seen in religious experiences from all faiths.
EMPIRICALLY TESTED: Like James, St Teresa of Avila (16th century mystic and Catholic nun) wrote of the need for religious experiences to be subject to tests to determine whether they are genuine: this includes whether there is a positive change in the person, whether the individual is left at peace rather than disturbed, and whether the experience fits with the teachings of the church. Galatians 5:22-23 writes of the ‘fruit of the spirit’, including love, peace and self-control, suggesting that when one has come into contact with God, this leaves observable effects. It is therefore not completely absurd to conclude that they could point towards ‘something larger’.

Question 34

Critically discuss the nature of mystical experience.

LOA: Finally, while James presents a compelling argument that the ‘fruits’ of mystical experiences can point to the high probability of the existence of a ‘greater power’, it is best, from both an atheistic and theistic perspective, to argue against all forms of religious experience.

Outline the stronger view.

Answer 34

Challenging James’ empiricism
As BERTRAND RUSSELL rightly acknowledges, even a good effect is not necessarily evidence, as good effects on character can also be produced by fictional characters in books. - James claims that the effects of the experience is empirical data, however this data is not direct enough – unconscious, irrational and subjective experience is not something that can be made accessible to another individual. It is therefore meaningless.
Physiological explanations for mystical experiences Persinger’s ‘God-helmet’ experiment sought to demonstrate that stimulating the brain (specifically the temporal lobes) can reproduce the same effects as mystical experiences.
Similarly, Teresa of Avila and other well-known mystics are thought to have had vitamin deficiencies due to their poor diets, which could lead to hallucinations.
NUANCED CONCLUSION: CAROLINE FRANKS DAVIS uses a cumulative argument to suggest that, along with other arguments for the existence of God, evidence from religious experience may just tip the balance in favour of there being a God. However, Antony Flew criticises the use of religious experience to add to the cumulative evidence for God. He says that ten leaky buckets are just as useless as one. In a similar way, all arguments for the existence of God have faults, simply adding them together does not make one better argument. It is not just atheists that are cynical of REs. Some theists, such as those who accept a non-interventionist approach to divine activity in the world, do not accept the view that REs point to the divine/something larger/God. In fact, in many ways REs presents
a problem for a benevolent God – why would God interact with some and not others? What of those that need His help most, yet God is seemingly silent? It is better to dismiss REs altogether.

Question 35

Critically assess the views of William James about religious experience.

Outline the 3 LOAs, for each paragraph.

Answer 35

a) Firstly, William James allows for mystical experiences to be measured by identifying four common features, suggesting that they could reasonably point towards a common source, the divine (‘something larger’/’a greater power’).

b) Furthermore, James avoids the reductionism of a solely psychological or physiological explanation; he is right to acknowledge that there may be a psychological basis for religious experience, while acknowledging that this
does not make them invalid.

c) Finally, while James presents a compelling argument that the ‘fruits’ of REs, particularly conversions, can point to the high probability of the existence of a ‘greater power’, it is best, from both an atheistic and theistic perspective, to argue against all forms of religious experience.

Question 36

Critically assess the views of William James about religious experience.

LOA: Firstly, William James allows for mystical experiences to be measured by identifying four common features, suggesting that they could reasonably point towards a common source, the divine (‘something larger’/’a greater power’).

Outline the weaker view.

Answer 36

According to James, mystical experiences are not certain proof of God’s existence, but they could testify to the existence of “something larger” than ourselves. Psychological and physiological explanations (natural explanations) may be accepted, but they may not be
the only explanations. With ‘reasonable probability’ they can point towards ‘the continuity of our consciousness’ that the ‘spiritual man’ can access in a way that the ‘ordinary man is shut off’. He draws an analogy with drunkenness, suggesting a mystic (such as TERESA OF AVILA) may be able to access different states of consciousness in the
same way that a drunk is put into another state by alcohol. It is plausible that there is more to our existence that the physical and that James is right to entertain the possibility of a ‘wider, spiritual environment from which the ordinary man is shut off.’ This deep-seated sense of the divine is also argued by Calvin (sensus divinitatis). Mystical experiences give a sense of ‘oneness’/unity with the divine and the renowned 16th century mystic and Catholic nun, St Teresa of Avila, likened them to being like a sponge saturated with water: just as a sponge may be saturated with water, so too the
soul absorbs and is saturated by God. The four common features are: Passivity (the individual is not in control, suggesting there is something external at work), ineffability(the experience is indescribable, showing it is not like an ordinary experience), noetic
quality (knowledge is gained, indicating unity with the divine because there is no other explanation as to how this insight is gained) and transience (the experience is short-lived, but the life-changing impact on the individual is observable, for example they are more
compassionate or charitable). It would be a fallacy to claim that James was arguing that these experiences are all ‘real’ or of divine origin. Rather, these features show that the experience is ‘genuine’ (the experient is making an honest claim).

Question 37

Critically assess the views of William James about religious experience.

LOA: Firstly, William James allows for mystical experiences to be measured by identifying four common features, suggesting that they could reasonably point towards a common source, the divine (‘something larger’/’a greater power’).

Outline the stronger view.

Answer 37

Challenging the four common features (PINT)
(1) the four common features of mystical experiences are evident not because they point to a common source (the divine), rather they originate in the mind, which reacts in which the same way. Although those involved may be convinced and sincere, they could be sincerely wrong.
(2) While it may feel as though we are not in control of the experience (passivity), it could be our own unconscious mind deluding the conscious self. Given the nature of the unconscious mind, there would be no way of us knowing that this is the case.
Indeed, participants in Persinger’s God Helmet experiment had feelings of something greater beyond themselves, but this was the product of electromagnetic fields in the helmet, not of God.
(3) Rather than pointing to a common source, the ineffability of mystical experiences merely shows how untrustworthy the accounts really are.
(4) Transiency could point towards the reliability of mystical experiences, because of the observable life-long impact that the experience has on the individual despite the experience itself being short-lived. However, this carries little weight, as Russell rightly notes that a change in character could be due to several
factors or non-religious influences. It is perfectly plausible for a novel to have a similar effect.

Question 38

Critically assess the views of William James about religious experience.

LOA: Furthermore, James avoids the reductionism of a solely psychological or physiological explanation; he is right to acknowledge that there may be a psychological basis for religious experience, while acknowledging that this
does not make them invalid.

Outline the weaker view.

Answer 38

Scholars such as Richard Swinburne may dismiss the psychological explanation for religious experience, arguing that it may point to the high probability of God’s existence.
SWINBURNE uses his PRINCIPLES OF TESTIMONY AND CREDULITY to argue that religious experiences should be treated in the same way as other private, individual experiences, when we are more likely to believe they happened than not. Like James, he is careful not to suggest that the experience provides certainty of God’s existence, rather that the experience could provide probable evidence. (1) His principle of testimony states that we should assume people are telling the truth unless we have good reason to believe otherwise, for instance they are untrustworthy or under the influence of something. (2) Likewise, his principle of credulity states that unless we have overwhelming evidence to the contrary, we should believe that things are as they seem to be. There are cases where
people claim to have had an experience which subsequently turns out to be false, however this does not mean that all experiences are false.

Question 39

Critically assess the views of William James about religious experience.

LOA: Furthermore, James avoids the reductionism of a solely psychological or physiological explanation; he is right to acknowledge that there may be a psychological basis for religious experience, while acknowledging that this
does not make them invalid.

Outline the stronger view.

Answer 39

However, WILLIAM JAMES is right to argue that the testimony alone is not sufficient to prove an experience genuine. The after-effects (fruits) in terms of character and lifestyle are far more important. PSYCHOLOGY CAN EXPLAIN WHY INDIVIDUALS MAY BELIEVE THE
EXPERIENCE TO BE ‘GENUINE’, DESPITE IT BEING A PRODUCT OF OUR OWN MIND. Swinburne’s point is predicated on a question of whether people are truthful, however it does not follow that because they have been truthful that they have correctly grasped by truth of their perception. They are not empirical but are usually private to the individual’s mind, hence it is unwise to give them the benefit of the doubt. Peter Donovan rightly distinguishes between ‘feeling certain’ and ‘being right’ – while a believer may ‘feel certain’ that the religious experience originates from God, the claim is ultimately
subjective. Psychologists refer to ‘inattentional blindness’ – for example, we see a clear road instead of the car coming towards us. In religious experiences we can also be misled by our minds. We can be sincere in our beliefs about the experience, and even change our
outlook as a result, but we can be sincerely mistaken. it could simply be a result of a wish-fulfilment - an individual seeking a worldview that provides comfort, or an escape from the difficulties that life might bring. Freud believed it could be the result of a desire to seek forgiveness for repressed guilt. Freud would disagree with James’ use of St Teresa of Avila’s criteria, as he argued that the church was
the cause of much psychological and subconscious guilt, repressed in the super-ego, which resurfaced in repetitive rituals, such as prayer. Religion is a neurosis (mental illness) which is rooted in conflict between our conscious and unconscious mind, where the ego tries to balance the demands of the id and superego. Religion is simply wishful thinking and so religious experience is an illusion, a deception of the mind. Since humans worry and fear danger in the world or death, Freud claims our minds construct a father figure (God) who will defend and protect us and is in control. Religious experiences are a form of regression to the safety and comfort of infancy. The idea of God existing is psychologically attractive
as our wrongdoing can be forgiven. Religion, and by extension religious experiences, are a psychological construct, not an indication of anything supernatural or of God.

Question 40

Critically assess the views of William James about religious experience.

LOA: Finally, while James presents a compelling argument that the ‘fruits’ of REs, particularly conversions, can point to the high probability of the existence of a ‘greater power’, it is best, from both an atheistic and theistic perspective, to argue against all forms of religious experience.

Outline the weaker view.

Answer 40

SCIENTIFIC APPROACH: According to James, ‘genuine’ experiences can be tested by the ‘fruits’ (effects) rather than the ‘roots’ (origins) of the experience. For this reason, James may be described as an empiricist, pragmatist and pluralist. He is an empiricist as,
although the experience itself cannot be empirically verified, the result of the experience can provide empirical data. He is a pragmatist as he believes that truth is not fixed, rather what is ‘true’ relates to whatever has value for us and works in real life - therefore the effects of the experience are enough to conclude that the experience is genuine. Finally, he is a pluralist as his research led him to conclude that there is truth in all faiths, given that positive effects can be seen in religious experiences from all faiths.
CONVERSION: Arguably conversion experiences provide the strongest ‘evidence’ for the divine, as they often produce the most extreme observable-effects (empirical data). For example, in the book of Acts, St Paul describes himself as having been ‘re-born’
following his conversion on the road to Damascus. Despite being an ardent persecutor of early Christians, he proceeded to became one of the most influential missionary figures in the Christian faith. EMPIRICALLY TESTED: Like James, St Teresa of Avila (16th century mystic and Catholic nun) wrote of the need for religious experiences to be subject to tests to determine whether they are genuine: this includes whether there is a positive change in the person, whether the individual is left at peace rather than disturbed, and whether the experience fits with the teachings of the church. - Galatians 5:22-23 writes of the ‘fruit of the spirit’, including love, peace and self-control,
suggesting that when one has come into contact with God, this leaves observable effects. It is therefore not completely absurd to conclude that they could point towards ‘something larger’

Question 41

Critically assess the views of William James about religious experience.

LOA: Finally, while James presents a compelling argument that the ‘fruits’ of REs, particularly conversions, can point to the high probability of the existence of a ‘greater power’, it is best, from both an atheistic and theistic perspective, to argue against all forms of religious experience.

Outline the stronger view.

Answer 41

Challenging James’ empiricism
As BERTRAND RUSSELL rightly acknowledges, even a good effect is not necessarily evidence, as good effects on character can also be produced by fictional characters in books. - James claims that the effects of the experience is empirical data, however this data is not direct enough – unconscious, irrational and subjective experience is not something that can be made accessible to another individual. It is therefore meaningless.

NUANCED CONCLUSION: CAROLINE FRANKS DAVIS uses a cumulative argument to suggest that, along with other arguments for the existence of God, evidence from religious experience may just tip the balance in favour of there being a God. However, Antony Flew criticises the use of religious experience to add to the cumulative evidence for God. He says that ten leaky buckets are just as useless as one. In a similar way, all arguments for the existence of God have faults, simply adding them together does not make one better argument. It is not just atheists that are cynical of REs. Some theists, such as those who accept a non-interventionist approach to divine activity in the world, do not accept the view that REs point to the divine/something larger/God. In fact, in many ways REs presents
a problem for a benevolent God – why would God interact with some and not others? What of those that need His help most, yet God is seemingly silent? It is better to dismiss REs altogether.