Relationships

Question 1

Relationships

Answer 1

The evolutionary explanation for partner preferences; including the relationship between sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour.

Question 2

Cunningham (1986) - what do males find attractive in females?

Answer 2

He symmetrically varied the size of females faces: eyes, nose and mouth.
Men were more attracted to features associated with young children - large eyes, small noses and chin, narrow cheeks, wide smiles and dilated pupils were also found to be attractive

Question 3

Waynforth (1995) - what do females find attractive in males?

Answer 3

Masculine facial features including square jawline, ridged eyebrows, small eyes, thin lips and a symmetrical face were preferred by women.

Question 4

What was found attractive to both?

Answer 4

Young (1998) - symmetry was preferred by both; the overall ‘balance’ look of the face.
Longer-than-average legs were preferred (Pawlowski, 2008) - found that 5% longer-than-average legs were seen as more attractive.

Question 5

Qualities preferred by men

Answer 5

David Buss (1989) — cross-culture study of partner preference.

Men valued physical attractiveness more than women
Men valued women who were younger than themselves

Question 6

Qualities preferred by women

Answer 6

David Buss (1989) — cross-culture study of partner preference

Women valued financial capacity of potential partners.
Women found ambition and industriousness/final success more attractive than men did.

Question 7

Sexual selection

Answer 7

A key part of Darwin’s evolutionary theory, explaining apparent non-adaptive features of animals.

Evolution is driven by competition for mates in which attributed behaviours increase reproductive success.

Question 8

Anisogamy

Answer 8

The differences between male and female gametes.

• socio-behaviourists propose that human reproductive behaviours to engage in casual sex is the consequence to Anisogamy.

Question 9

Inter-sexual selection

Answer 9

Between the sexes, he strategies that one sex uses to select the other.

Trivers (1972) - points to there greater investment in offspring before and after birth. Poor mate means more costly to invest in.

Question 10

Intra-sexual selection

Answer 10

Strategies within the sex to promote selection over competition.

Question 11

Dion et al (1972)

Answer 11

Found physically attractive people are rated as kind, strong, social and successful; leads to self-fulfilling behaviour causing positivity towards them.

Question 12

Walster and Walster (1969) - Matching Hypothesis Theory

Answer 12

Individuals assess their own value from the view of others. When initiating relationships they make realistic choices (likelihood of acceptance and desirable alternatives).
Best available candidates from those whose social desirability equal theirs. ‘Realistic’ means less chance of rejection.

Question 13

Self-disclosure

Answer 13

When a person reveals intimate and/or personal information about themselves to another person.

Collins and Miller (1994)

Question 14

Types of self-disclosure

Answer 14

Mutual 
One-sided
Neutral - casual 
Intense - personal
Optimum - too personal

Question 14

Norms of self-disclosure

Answer 14

People should show only moderate levels of self-disclosure in early stages of relationships.
Dertega and Grzelak (1979) - it shouldn’t be so personal that it seems in discriminate for telling a stranger nor so impersonal they cant learn.

Question 15

Cooper and Sportolari (1997): Disclosure online

Answer 15

‘Boom and Bust’ - the ‘anonymity’ of online interactions can promote a comfort to reveal mor personal information that face-to-face interactions.
Relationships can get intense quickly and trust and experiences are not their to give a foundation for the relationship.

Question 16

Buss (1989)

Answer 16

Investigated what males and females looked for in a long-term partner.
-10,000 people form 37 cultures where asked to rate 18 characteristics using the 4-point scale (3=very important. 0=irrelevant).
- women desire men with financial prospects.
Men desired women with youth and physical attractiveness.

Question 18

Collins and Miller (1994)

Answer 18

Using meta-analysis they found the self-disclosure has a central role in the development and maintenance of a romantic relationships. People disclosure at intimate levels and it had a ‘halo’ effect meaning people liked those they’d ‘given’ to and those who had ‘given’ back.

Question 19

Sprecher (2013)

Answer 19

Investigated whether reciprocal self-disclosure was more influential in determining attraction
156 US undergraduates took part in the experiment based on self-disclosure over Skype — they took turns in asking and answering questions (reciprocal condition).
They assessed each interaction ( liking, closeness, similarities and the enjoyment).
Conclusion = turn taking extended reciprocity and resulted in a positive outcome.

Question 19

Filter theory

Answer 19

We choose romantic partners by using a series of filters that narrow down the ‘field of avaliables ’ from which we might eventually make our choices.

Question 21

Filters

Answer 21

Are criteria which help people to sift through all potential partners to choose the right one.

Question 22

Social demography (1st filter)

Answer 22

Refers to factors that affect the chances of partners meeting e.g. social background, geographical locations, ethnicity, social class, religion etc.
Proximity effects availability.
Homogamy =relationships with someone culturally similar.

Question 23

Similarity in attitudes (2nd filter)

Answer 23

Having social defines in common means they are likely to hold similar attitudes and beliefs

Question 24

Complimentary to of needs (3rd filter)

Answer 24

The ability of each partners to meet each others needs.

Question 24

Kerckhoff and Davis (1962):Procedure

Answer 24

Longitudinal study of 94 student couples in short-term relationships in the US. Each partners completed two questions (similarity of attitudes and complementarity of needs).
7 months later the did another questionnaire to assess how close they felt to their partner.

Question 25

Kerckhoff and Davis (1962):Findings

Answer 25

For short-term couples (less than 18 months) similarity of attitudes and beliefs was the most significant predictor for closeness.
For long-term (more than 18 months) complementarity of needs predicted how close they felt about each other.
- Helps determine the levels of filters

Question 26

Social Exchange Theory

Answer 26

Profit and loss - focuses on the rewards of a relationship against the costs of a relationship. Those with greater rewards are most likely to be satisfied with the relationship.

Question 27

Comparison Level (CL)

Answer 27

Used to judge whether someone offers something better or worse than expected.
If a potential profit is greater than the comparison level the relationship will be judged worthwhile.
Previous unpleasant relationships can cause lower comparison levels.

Question 29

Comparison Level of Alternatives (CLA)

Answer 29

Assessed profit of a relationship this is when the person weighs up a potential increase in rewards from the different partner minus any cost with ending the current relationship.

Question 30

Equity Theory

Answer 30

Claims that people are most comfortable when what they get out of a relationship is roughly equal to what they put into it.

Over benefited = may feel pity, guilt, shame etc.
Under benefited = may feel anger, sadness and resentment
Th greater the inequity, the greater the dissatisfaction and stress.

Question 31

Stafford and Canary (2206):Procedure

Interested in how equity predicted the use of maintenance strategies in marriage

Answer 31

Procedure - 200 married couples completed measure of equity and satisfaction. They were asked questions about their use of relationship maintenance such as assurance, sharing task and positivity.

Question 32

Stafford and Canary (2006):Findings

Answer 32

Satisfaction was highest for partners who saw their relationship as equitable. Under benefitted husbands reported lower levels of maintenance strategies compared to over benefitted husbands.

Question 33

Rusbult’s Investment Theory

Answer 33

The investment model says that the stability of a relationship over time is determined by how committed the individuals are to the relationship.

Question 34

Investment Model

Answer 34

Satisfaction - how well the relationship fulfils the person’s needs.
Comparison with alternatives - the extent that needs could be better fulfilled in another relationship.
Investment - the amount they feel they’ve put into a relationship.

Question 35

Le and Agnew (2003): Procedure

Answer 35

Meta-analysis of 52 studies in the late 1970’s and 1990’s. Explored different components of the model.
Produced over 11,000 participants in 5 countries.

Question 36

Le and Agnew (2003): Findings

Answer 36

Across all levels satisfaction level, quality of alternatives and investment side were highly correlated with relationship commitment.
The correlation between commitment an stay or leave behaviour was significant at 0.47 - high commitment levels = most likely to stay.

Question 37

Virtual relationships in social media

Answer 37

Self-disclosure in virtual relationships; effects of absence of gating on the nature of virtual relationships.

Question 38

Gating

Answer 38

Features and characteristics that prevent two people getting to know each other face to face - available features such as attractiveness and age are used to categorise individuals as potential partners.

Question 39

Parasocial Theory

Answer 39

An individual is attractive to another person (normally a celebrity), who is usually unaware of the existence of the person who has created the relationship.

Question 40

Giles and Maltby (2006) - Celebrity Attitude Scale, with 3 levels of parasocial relationships.

Answer 40

Entertainment-social: fans are attracted to celebrities follow them, keep up with them, watch them etc. Majority of people engage in these.
Intense-personal: involves a deeper level of involvement and reflects the intensive feeling about the celebrity.
Borderline-psychological: identifies the celebrity’s success and failures. Over identification and uncontrollable behaviour about their lives.

Question 41

The Absorption Theory

Answer 41

When an individual becomes psychological lay absorbed with a celebrity or individual to establish a sense of fulfilment. The motivational forces driving this can take an addictive component, leading to more extreme behaviour to sustain the parascoial relationship.

Question 42

McCutcheon (2002)

Answer 42

People create these relationships due to the lack of relationship in their won life. There are fewer demands and there is no risk of rejection or real relationship.
Involves ‘effortless focusing of attention’ which allows them to think its special.
Borederline-pathological: they become ‘addicted’ to the person and have a stronger involvement to feel connected to them.

Question 43

The Attachment Theory

Answer 43

An explanation of the formation of an emotional bond between two people (infant and caregiver). This is a two-way process and leads to certain behaviours such as proximity seeking.

Question 44

Weiss (1991)

Answer 44

Proximity seeking: attempts to reduce the distance between themselves and their attachment figure.
Secure base: provides a sense of security and a ‘safe heaven’ that allows them to explore.
Protest at disruption: attachment may be due to prolonged distress following separation and loss of an attachment figure.

Question 45

Cole and leets (1999)

Answer 45

One people are more likely to develop PSRs through the concepts of the attachment style. Willingness to form PSRs is related to attachment beliefs.
Insecure-resistant: were most likely to enter PSRs.
Avoidant: concerned that others will not reciprocate ones desires for intimacy.

Question 46

Relationship Breakdown

Answer 46

A model of relationship breakdown that describes the different phases that people go to.
When one partner in a relationship becomes distressed with the way the relationship is conducted (5 phases).

Question 47

First phase

Answer 47

The individual realises they are not long willing or able to stand their dissatisfaction of their relationship.

Question 48

Intrapsychic Process

Answer 48

Second phase - the partner who is dissatisfied beings to consider whether they are better out of the relationship (an alternative).
Feel resentment due to being under-benefitted.
Don’t verbally communicate but may display it.

Question 49

The Dyadic Phase

Answer 49

Third phase - the individual will confront their partners and discuss their feelings.
They may feel guilt and anger.
Forces that bond them (a house, children etc.) and costs of being together (social and economic costs) become factors that they must to into consideration - bring in other people to help (counsellor).

Question 50

The Social Phase

Answer 50

Fourth phase - friends and family become aware of what is happening. This is when the distress of one or both partners becomes public.
Becomes harder to ignore the problem. Others may take sides and offer advice; could speed up the couples decision.

Question 51

The Grave-dressing Phase

Answer 51

Fifth and final phase - after ending the relationship, couples try to justify their actions. Each partner must presets themselves as trustworthy and loyal in order to attracted a new partner.
Strategically re-interpret their views of their ex-partner.