Relationships Flashcards
FORMATION A01 - ______/______ satisfaction theory (Byrne & clore 1970) - rewards/punishments __________, attraction via association ____________
Similarity (Byrne & clore 1986) personality: ___________, attitudes ____________
reward/need satisfaction, rewards/punishments - produce positive feelings / negative feelings, people act as stimuli for positives (operant conditioning) so this reinforcement is what makes us enter relationships
Association - we also associate people with positive moods/places/experiences which coincide with them (classical conditioning)
Similarity: personality - research shows we are most attracted to those with similar traits, especially long-term. in attitudes, if they disagree on something important, partners will modify attitudes to match their partner’s.
FORMATION A02/3 research support - Griffit and Guay 1969 support for rewards/punishments and association
________________
attitude and personality are not the only factors: _______________
Lott (1994) found culture/gender differences unaccounted for e.g. ____________
Aron et al. (2005) physiological/ evolutionary explanations - explain, link to holism/red _____________
Problem of mundane realism (lab) ____
Griffit and Guay 1969 had an experimenter evaluate participants on a creative task amd they rated how high they liked him, higher when he has rewarded them, also they rated an unrelated onlooker higher too, showing association too
Other factors include economic level similarity, physical similarity
Aron et al. 2005 linked self-reports of romantic love to brain activity, and explained this brain system with evolution - three areas, giving holism, lab studies lack mundane realism (applying to everyday life) so most of these studies have this weakness
CHILDHOOD INFLUENCE A01 -
Parent-child relationships: Bowlby (1969) claimed relationships are a continuation of _________________________ because ___________
Peer interaction: children learn from experiences of others, with Nangle et al. 2003 finding that childhood friendships are _____________________
in adolescence we compare parental relationships to _____________________
and attachment shifts from parents to _____________ because…
Bowlby 1969 - continuation of our attachment type secure/insecure, because the attachment figure makes them expect this from future relationships also
Nangle et al 2003 found these were training grounds for adult relationships in later life
We compare parents to hypothetical ideal relationships, attachment shifts to peers to allow seperation from parents and we move into a romantic relationship
CHILDHOOD INFLUENCE A02/3 - Kirkpatrick and Hazan 1994 linked supported attachment theory, finding that breakups were ______________
Richard and Schneider’s 2005 gender differences findings __________________
Larson et al. 1996 pager study into parent-child relationships __________________
Neemann et al. 1995 linked adolescent relationships to ___________ showing it is not entirely beneficial in development
Restricted samples? -Science/culture…
Social determnism?
Age bias?
Kirkpatrick and Hazan 1994 found it waslinked to a shift of attachment secure to insecure
Richard & schneider 2005 found girls report more intimate friendships with greater care and security
Larson et al 1996 used pagers finding what adolescents were doing at random times and found that time with each family member remained the same, not being replaced by friend time
Neemann 1995 linked adolescent romantic relationships to decreased academic achievement
Most studies use small, restricted samples such as 1 US town, which does not support psych as sci and is a culture bias to US
Determinism - early experiences having one fixed effect on adult life - this is not the case as Bowlby insisted (with attachment types etc.)
Mostly adolescents/teenagers studied, not in later life
MAINTENANCE A01 - Social exchange theory Thibaut & Kelley 1959 - Profit and loss ________________________
Comparison level /comparison for alts ____________________
Equity theory Walster et al. 1978 - inequity and distress ____________________
Ratio of inputs/outputs _____________________
Thibaut & kelley 1959 - social exchange - profit and loss is the basis of relationship behaviour - profit is rewards like being cared for, sex, loss is the costs, including time money and effort, so commitment depends on level of profit
The comparison level is the standard for relationships set by previous experiences, so we look for a higher profit than our comparison level for the best possible relationship, CL for alternatives is comparing our current relationship profit to potential others
In Walster et al 1978 ‘s equity theory, people strive for fairness so inequity causes distress - giving lots and getting little in return - the greatr this inequity the greater the distress and less chance of maintenance. Input/output ratio is each partner’s subjective opinion of the equity in the relationship - what they perceive as fair
MAINTENANCE A02/3 - Simpson et al. 1990 found evidence for CL ____________
Clark & mills 1979 argued some relationships arent based on economics _________________________
DeMaris 2007 studied 15000 US couples and found about inequity __________________
Moghaddam 1998 suggested bias in these economic theories __________________________
Steil and Weltman’s 1991 gender difference findings __________________
Social determinism in relationships ______________________________
Simpson et al. 1990 asked participants to rate the opposite sex in attractiveness and those already in a relationship rated others lower
Clarks and Mill 1979 distinguished exchange (business) and communal (romantic) relationships
In the 2007 DeMaris study, marital inequity was relatively unimportant in relationships
Moghaddam 1998 suggested an economic view only applies well to Western, short-term relationships - culture bias
Steil and Weltman 1991 suggested women and men actually jusdge relationship equity differently
Social det - our relations are determined by economic factors
BREAKDOWN A01 - Reasons for:
Lack of skills _____________________
Lack of stimulation ___________________________
Maintenance difficulties _______________________
Model of breakdown (Rollie & Duck 2006) - Breakdown ________________
Intrapsychic processes _______________
Dyadic processes _______________
Social processes ________________
Grave-dressing processes ________________
Resurrection ______________
Lack of skills means not having the personal skills for a satisfying relationship e.g. in conversation
Lack of stimulation e.g. boredom causes breakdown in relationships because it is a rewarding element of them
Maintenance difficulties including living too far apart to maintain any relations
Rollie and Duck’s breakdown model:
Breakdown involves realising you are dissatisfied, Intrapsychic processes are thoughts linking these feelings to the relationship, and brooding on it, Dyadic processes involve discussing the relationship issues and breakup, in the Social processes partners seek support from others outside the relationship, Grave-dressing involves dealing with the memories and saving face with others and lastly Resurrection processes involve preparing for new relationships and learning from the mistakes
BREAKDOWN A02/3 - Boekhout et al. 1999 linked breakdowns caused by extramarital affairs to lack of skills: ____________________________
Maintenance difficulties aren’t always experienced in every relationship ____________________________
Tashiro and Frazier (2003) supported Rollie and Duck’s model _____________________
Gender differences _________________
Ethical issues in breakdown research __________________________
Psych as sci? (data) __________________
They asked undergraduates for reasons for having affairs, and reported a response of sexual and emotional reasons
Long-distance relationships are now more commonly successful because of a more mobile society
Tashiro and Frazier (2003) found participants who has recently been in breakups reported the grave-dressing and resurrection processes
Women are more likely to focus on emotional reasons for breakup like unhappiness, men focus more on sex
Participants may suffer distress when talking about this subject
Most research lacks empirical data, not supporting psych as science
SEXUAL SELECTION A01 -
Define intrasexual (mate competition) and intersexual selection (mate choice) ___________________________
Short-term mating preferences (male and female) _______________________
Long term mating preferences (male and female) _________________________
Buss’s 1989 study of these differences - 10,000 people from over 30 different cultures (prospects, physical appearance, age, intelligence) ____________________
Intrasexual selection - competition between males for females to allow them to pass on their genes, and thus successful traits
Intersexual selection - preference for certain traits in the opposite sex e.g. height which determine the quality of genes
Men, short-term, have a greater desire for sex in relationships. Women have less of an evolutionary pressure because impregnation to childbirth takes 9 months
Both sexes invest heavily long-term with resources so look for fertility and minimum costs especially.
Buss (1989) found in his study of 10,000 people women focussed more on financial prospects, men focussed more on physical attractiveness and youth and both wanted an intelligent mate for parenting
SEXUAL SELECTION A02/3 -
Genetic explanation of SS: (why we are ‘choosy’) __________________
Penton-Voak et al (1999) finding female mate choice was not constant and varied over the menstrual cycle ________________________
External validity in Buss’s study ___________________
Gender bias (short-term casual desire for sex) _____________________
Evolution _____________
Even if SS requires time and effort, genetic quality of offspring is important enough to justify this
Penton-Voak et al. (1999) found long-term a feminine male face was preferred (parental figure), but preferred a more masculine face (more valuble genetically) when at high risk of conceiving at that point in the menstrual cycle.
Buss’s study may not give a valid picture of what people will choose in real life
Women also, in some situations, have the same short-term desire for sex as men
This area is evolutionary reductionism and does not fully consider individual differences
PARENTAL INVESTMENT A01 - Define PI \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ How/Why females invest more \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Paternal cuckoldry \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Sexual and emotional jealousy \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Parent offspring conflict: Before birth - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ After birth - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Sibling rivalry \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Investment by a parent in an offspring to increase its survival chances
Females invest more because of childbirth and subsequent childcare, including breastfeeding.
When males invest they aim to avoid cuckoldry (investing in offspring which are not theirs) so have a greater concern than females about fidelity
Male jealousy is based around sex because of cuckoldry risk, females focus on emotions because emotional shift can lead to loss of resources.
Before birth, women can suffer pre-eclampsia: raised blood pressure due to the child taking in nutrients (at its benefit and the mother’s cost)
After birth, infants try to maximise the amount of resources they receive from the parent (again at their benefit but at the cost of parents)
Sibling rivalry involves competing for attention/resources - there is only a limited amount so each infant must compete.
PARENTAL INVESTMENT A02/3 -
The two things females want due to their high-cost investment - how they can get both _________________________
Buss et al. 1992 study supporting PI theory of jealousy ______________________
Potential benefit of conflict before birth __________________
Lalumiere et al. (1996) suggestsed a strategy for coping with sibling rivalry ___________________________
A male provider to care for the infant, and good genes for their offspring. This can be acheived by marrying a man with good resources then having extramarital affairs with men with good genes.
Buss et al. 1992 found, in US students, males were more concerned about sexual infidelity, females about emotional infidelity.
Pre-eclampsia can prevent the child suffering spontaneous abortion.
Lalumiere et al. (1996) suggested introducing siblings to different hobbies/interests so that they don’t compete.
DIFFERENT CULTURES A01 -
Western/non-western differences:
Voluntary/non-voluntary (mobility and other factors) ____________________________
Individualist/collectisivist (different values/concerns - Moghaddam et al. 1993) ______________________________
Norms and rules (e.g. importance of returning favours) __________________________
Western cultures have far easier geographical/social mobility, giving a high degree of choice in who we form relationships with. Non-Western cultures have less choice due to lack of mobility so relationships are usually based more around family or economic resources.
Moghaddam et al. (1993) found collectivist non-Western cultures tended to form relationships based on group/family concerns whilst Western individualist cultures based relationships on freedom of individual choice.
Norms and rules (what is appropriate in relationships) differ - e.g. some non-Western cultures see returning favours as obligatory compared to it being optional in Western cultures.
DIFFERENT CULTURES A02/3 -
Surprisingly, with arranged marriages in non-Western cultures _________________
Argylle et al. (1986) Western/non-Western relationships have important similarities in rules ____________________________
Pinker (2008) evolutionary explanation of romantic love across cultures _____________________________
In arranged marriages divorce rates are low and many resut in falling in love.
Argylle et al. (1986) actually found that various Western and non-Western relationships have some similar rules such as courtesy and respect.
Pinker (2008) argued that romantic love must be adaptive in evolution because it occurs across Western and non-Western countries.
