Relationships Flashcards
(60 cards)
1
Q
(Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour)
Inter-sexual selection
- Females make a greater investment of time and commitment during and after the birth of offspring
- This means she is more likely to select genetically fit fit partners who are able to provide resources
A
TRIVERS
2
Q
(Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour)
Inter-sexual selection - ‘sexy sons hypothesis’
- ‘Runaway process’
- Mating with male with desirable, ‘sexy’ characteristics means it will be inherited by her son
- Increases chances that new generations will mate with her son
A
FISHER
3
Q
(Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour AO3)
Anisogamy
- Survey of 10,000 adults in 33 countries
- Asked questions about age and attributes they look for
Females - Resource-related characteristics (financial prospects, ambition)
Males - Reproductive capacity (good looks, chastity, young)
Due to differences in sex cells
A
Buss
4
Q
(Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour AO3)
Inter-sexual selection - ‘choosiness’
- Psychology students approached other students and sexually propositioned them
- No females accepted but 75% of males did
A
Clarke and Hatfield
5
Q
(Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour AO3)
Ignores social influences
- Women’s greater role in the workplace means they are less dependent on men and are less likely to have mating preferences that involve resources
A
Bereczkei
6
Q
(Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour AO3)
Waist-hip ratio
- Generally find all hip or waist sizes attractive as long as the ratio of one to the other is about 0.7
- The combination of wider hips and a smaller waist is an ‘honest signal’ of fertility and a sign the woman is not pregnant
A
Singh
7
Q
(Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour AO3)
Supporting research - lonely hearts research
Women - offer indicators of young, attractiveness (flirty, curvy, sexy)
Men - Offered resources (successful, fit, mature, ambitious)
A
Waynforth and Dunbar
8
Q
(Self-disclosure theory)
Social penetration theory
- Involves reciprocal exchange of information
- When one person discloses information they show trust, so the other should do the same
- As they disclose more they further ‘penetrate’ the other’s lives
A
ALTMAN AND TAYLOR
9
Q
(Self-disclosure theory)
Reciprocity
- As well as breadth and depth, there must be reciprocity
- Partner should respond with empathy and understanding, and share information of their own
- Balance needed for successful relationships
A
REIS AND SHAVER
10
Q
(Self-disclosure A03)
Research support
- Strong correlation between measures of satisfaction and self-disclosure in both partners
A
Sprecher and Hendrick
11
Q
(Self-disclosure A03)
Cultural differences - sexual self-disclosure
- Men and women in the USA (individualist cultures) more likely to disclose sexual thoughts and preferences than in China (collectivist culture)
A
Tang
12
Q
(Self-disclosure A03)
Relationship breakdown
- Disclosure involves intimate and honest conversation
- In relationship breakdown this can salvage a relationship or lead to breakup
A
Duck
13
Q
(Physical attractiveness)
Evolutionary theory
- People with symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive
- It is an ‘honest signal’ of genetic fitness; it cannot be faked
A
SHACKLETON AND LARSEN
14
Q
(Physically attractiveness)
The halo effect
- Physically attractive people consistently rated as strong, kind, sociable and successful compared to unattractive people
A
DION
15
Q
(Physical attractiveness)
The matching hypothesis
- We ding the most attractive people desirable, but know we cannot necessarily date them
- We make a ‘compromise’ based on a value judgement about our own attractiveness and date people that we believe are of similar attractiveness
- Avoids rejection
A
WALSTER
16
Q
(Physical attractiveness A03)
The matching hypothesis - dance
- Paired student randomly
- Pretty girls asked on second dates even if the boy was less attractive
A
Walster
17
Q
(Physical attractiveness A03)
The matching hypothesis - photos
- 99 photos of real couples and randomly paired ones
- Real couples consistently rated as more alike in attractiveness
A
Murstein
18
Q
(Physical attractiveness A03)
The matching hypothesis - dating website
- Analysed activity of 60 heterosexual users: ‘initators’
- Identifed people they sent messages to: ‘targets’
- Idea of matching had no influence on who was contacted
- Responses showed clear evidence of matching
A
Taylor
19
Q
(Physical attractiveness A03)
The halo effect
- Less attractive people more likely to be convicted and receive an average 22 months longer sentence than unattractive people
- Seen as more trustworthy
A
Gunnell and Cici
20
Q
(Physical attractiveness A03)
Individual differences - The macho scale
- Ppts asked how much they would like to pursue someone based on a photo and biological information
- Also completed macho scale questionnaire to assess sexist attitudes
- High scores more likely to target people based off of appearance
A
Towhey
21
Q
(Physical attractiveness A03)
Cultural similarities
- Features such as small nose, large eyes, prominent cheekbones rated as attractive by white, black and hispanic males
A
Cunningham
22
Q
(Filter theory)
Field of availables - field of desirables
- Social demography (accessibility)
- Similarity in attitudes (first 18 months)
- Complementarity (long-term)
A
KERCKHOFF AND DAVIS
23
Q
(Filter theory A03)
Research support
- Similarity in personality, interests and attitudes between partners are typical in the early stages of relationships
A
Winch
24
Q
(Filter theory A03)
Failure to replicate research
- Many studies have failed to replicate the findings of the original study
- May be due to social changes
A
Levinger
25
(Filter theory A03)
Cause or effect? - Emotional convergence
- Cohabiting partners most similar in emotional responses: 'emotional convergence'
Andreason
26
(Filter theory A03)
Cause or effect? - Attitude alignment effect
- We often bring attitudes in line with that of our partner: 'attitude alignment effect'
Davis and Rusbult
27
(Filter theory A03)
Complemetarity or similarity?
- Similarity increases over time in long-term relationships
- Complementarity is not always a factor in relationships
Andreason
28
(Social exchange theory)
'Minimax principle'
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Comparison level (CL) - Based on previous relationships and observations of others
Comparison level of alternatives (CLalt) - Based on alternative options
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1. Sampling stage
2. Bargaining stage (beginning of relationship)
3. Commitment stage (further into relationship)
4. Institutionalisation ('settled down')
THIBAULT AND KELLEY
29
(Social exchange theory)
'Balance sheet'
- Relationships are like business transactions
- We keep tabs on profits and losses
- If costs outweigh rewards we are in a 'state of loss'
HOMANS
30
(Social exchance theory A03)
Do not accept economic metaphor
Two types of relatioships
1. Exchance relationships (work colleagues) - Involve social exchange
2. Communal relationships (romantic relationships) - Do not involve social exchange
Clark and Mills
31
(Social exchance theory A03)
Direction of cause and effect
- We do not consider alternatives constantly; this only occurs after dissatisfaction begins
Argyle
32
(Equity theory A03)
Supporting research - self-report
- Survey of 118 married couples
- 2 self-report scales to measure equity and satisfaction
- Equitable couples more satisfied
- Overbenefitters and underbenefitters unhappy
Utne
33
(Equity theory A03)
Contradictory findings
- Equity did not increase in longitudinal study of couples
- Equity also could not be used to distinguish between those who break up and those who did not
McQuinn
34
(Equity theory A03)
Types of relationship
Casual friendship - equity needed
Romantic relationships - mixed evidence for equity
Clark and Mills
35
(Equity theory A03)
Cultural differences
Couples in individualist cultures - equity important
Couples in collectivist cultures - happy to overbenefit
Aumer-Ryan
36
(Equity theory A03)
Individual differences
'Benevolents' - prepared to contribute more
'Entitleds' - believe they deserve to be overbenefitted
Huseman
37
(Investment model)
- Satisfaction level
- Comparisons with alternatives
- Investment size
(Intrinsic, extrinsic investments)
- Relationships maintenance mechanisms
(AWFPR)
The main psychological factor for staying in relationships is not satisfaction, but commitment.
- Unsatisfied partners may stay because they have made an investment
RUSBULT
38
(Investment model A03)
Supporting evidence - Model is accurate
- Meta-analysis of 52 studies
- Satisfaction, comaparisons and investment size all predicted relationship commitment
- Representative: these types of relationships were more stable in all groups (homosexual relationships, other cultures)
Le and Agnew
39
(Investment model A03)
Oversimplification of investment - 'future plans'
Extended model
- There is more to relationships than resources, particularly in the early days
- Added 'future plans'
- We become committed in order to achieve these earlier on
Goodfriend and Agnew
40
(Investment model A03)
Real life application - abusive relationships
- Visited victims of domestic violence in a shelter
- Those most likely to return had greater investments in the relationship, and no attractive alternatives
Rusbult and Martz
41
(Phase model of relationship breakdown)
1. Intra-psychic phase
2. Diadic phase
3. Social phase
4. Grave-dressing phase
DUCK
42
(Duck's phase model A03)
Oversimplified - added 5th 'resurrection phase'
- 'Resurrection stage' - turning attention to future relationships using experience from recently-ended one
Duck and Rollie
43
(Duck's phase model A03)
Doesn't explain why breakdown occurs - 'Fatal attraction hypothesis'
- Qualities originally found attractive can actually cause breakdown as we get 'too much of what we asked for'
E.g. good sense of humour/ can't take anything seriously
Flemlee
44
(Duck's phase model A03)
Real life applications - relationships counselling
- In the intra-psychic stage, the person should focus on positive attributes their partner has
Duck
45
(Duck's phase model A03)
Cultural bias
- Individualist cultures - relationships are generally voluntary and often come to an end
- Collectivist cultures - relationships are harder to end, involve greater family involvement and may be arranged
Moghaddam
46
(Virtual relationships: self-disclosure)
Reduced cues theory
- Computer-mediated communication (emails) less effective as the social cues involved in face to face communication are absent
E.g. tone of voice, facial expression
1. Disinihibition - loss of social inhibitors, blunt, impersonal conversation
2. De-individualisation - loss of individual indentity
SPROULL AND KIESLER
47
(Virtual relationships: self-disclosure)
The hyperpersonal model
- Greater self-disclosure
- Anonymity, absence of gating
Selective self-presentation - more time to think about responses
WALTHER
48
(Virtual relationships: self-disclosure)
'Boom and bust' phenomenon (hyperpersonal model)
- Relationships may also end sooner
- Initial excitement during self-disclosure not met by reality of face to face conversation
COOPER AND SPORTOLARI
49
(Virtual relationships: self-disclosure)
Strangers on a train effect (hyperpersonal model)
- Anonymity means we feel less accountable for behaviour
- More self-disclosure
Bargh
50
(Virtual relationships)
Absence of gating
- Allows relationships to 'get off the ground' where they may not usually
- Social/ physical barriers to dating less important
E.g. social anxiety, physical unattractiveness
MCKENNA AND BARGH
51
(Virtual relationships A03)
Dangers of absence of gating
- 54% of people on dating sites have been involved with someone misrepresenting themselves
Smith and Duggan
52
(Virtual relationships A03)
Absence of gating and social anxiety
- Followed up relationships of socially anxious people after 2 years
Formed online - 70% lasted
Formed offline - 50% lasted
McKenna and Bargh
53
(Virtual relationships A03)
Self-disclosure
- Ppts interacted via a chatroom and then face to face (believed it was 2 different people)
- Ppts more likely to prefer the 'person' they met online
- Online conversation was more intimate
McKenna
54
(Virtual relationships A03)
Relationships are multi-modal
- Most modern relationships are conducted online and offline
- Disclosure is very different online than face to face
Walther
55
(Parasocial relationships)
1. Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS)
2. Absorption -addiction model
Deficiency - absorption - addiction
MCCUTCHEON
56
(Parasocial relationships)
1. Levels of parasocial relationships
Entertainment-social
Intense-personal
Borderline pathological level
2. Personality type explanation (ENP)
Entertainment-social - extraverted
Intense-personal - neurotic
Borderline pathological - psychotic
MALTBY
57
(Parasocial relationships)
Attachment explanation
- Insecure-resistant people most likely to form parasocial relationships
- Can be over-involved without fear of rejection and jealousy
AINSWORTH
58
(Parasocial relationships A03)
Body image and celebrity worship
- Link between the two in 14-16 year old boys and girls
- Girls in intense-personal relationships more likely to have poor body image
- May be a precursor to anorexia
Maltby
59
(Virtual relationships A03)
No evidence for attachment theory
- Measured attachment type and used CAS for 299 ppts
- Insecure ppts no more likely to form parasocial relationships
McCutcheon
60
(Virtual relationships A03)
Cultural similarities - Harry Potter
- Tendency to form parasocial relationship with Harry Potter seems to be universal
- Used online questionnaire
- Similar levels in Germany (individualist) and Mexico (collectivist)
Schmid and Klimmt
