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Psychology > Relationships > Flashcards

Relationships Flashcards

1
Q

(Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour)

Inter-sexual selection

  • Females make a greater investment of time and commitment during and after the birth of offspring
  • This means she is more likely to select genetically fit fit partners who are able to provide resources
A

TRIVERS

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2
Q

(Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour)

Inter-sexual selection - ‘sexy sons hypothesis’

  • ‘Runaway process’
  • Mating with male with desirable, ‘sexy’ characteristics means it will be inherited by her son
  • Increases chances that new generations will mate with her son
A

FISHER

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3
Q

(Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour AO3)

Anisogamy

  • Survey of 10,000 adults in 33 countries
  • Asked questions about age and attributes they look for

Females - Resource-related characteristics (financial prospects, ambition)
Males - Reproductive capacity (good looks, chastity, young)
Due to differences in sex cells

A

Buss

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4
Q

(Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour AO3)

Inter-sexual selection - ‘choosiness’

  • Psychology students approached other students and sexually propositioned them
  • No females accepted but 75% of males did
A

Clarke and Hatfield

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5
Q

(Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour AO3)

Ignores social influences

  • Women’s greater role in the workplace means they are less dependent on men and are less likely to have mating preferences that involve resources
A

Bereczkei

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6
Q

(Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour AO3)

Waist-hip ratio

  • Generally find all hip or waist sizes attractive as long as the ratio of one to the other is about 0.7
  • The combination of wider hips and a smaller waist is an ‘honest signal’ of fertility and a sign the woman is not pregnant
A

Singh

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7
Q

(Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour AO3)

Supporting research - lonely hearts research

Women - offer indicators of young, attractiveness (flirty, curvy, sexy)
Men - Offered resources (successful, fit, mature, ambitious)

A

Waynforth and Dunbar

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8
Q

(Self-disclosure theory)

Social penetration theory

  • Involves reciprocal exchange of information
  • When one person discloses information they show trust, so the other should do the same
  • As they disclose more they further ‘penetrate’ the other’s lives
A

ALTMAN AND TAYLOR

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9
Q

(Self-disclosure theory)

Reciprocity

  • As well as breadth and depth, there must be reciprocity
  • Partner should respond with empathy and understanding, and share information of their own
  • Balance needed for successful relationships
A

REIS AND SHAVER

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10
Q

(Self-disclosure A03)

Research support

  • Strong correlation between measures of satisfaction and self-disclosure in both partners
A

Sprecher and Hendrick

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11
Q

(Self-disclosure A03)

Cultural differences - sexual self-disclosure

  • Men and women in the USA (individualist cultures) more likely to disclose sexual thoughts and preferences than in China (collectivist culture)
A

Tang

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12
Q

(Self-disclosure A03)

Relationship breakdown

  • Disclosure involves intimate and honest conversation
  • In relationship breakdown this can salvage a relationship or lead to breakup
A

Duck

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13
Q

(Physical attractiveness)

Evolutionary theory

  • People with symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive
  • It is an ‘honest signal’ of genetic fitness; it cannot be faked
A

SHACKLETON AND LARSEN

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14
Q

(Physically attractiveness)

The halo effect

  • Physically attractive people consistently rated as strong, kind, sociable and successful compared to unattractive people
A

DION

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15
Q

(Physical attractiveness)

The matching hypothesis

  • We ding the most attractive people desirable, but know we cannot necessarily date them
  • We make a ‘compromise’ based on a value judgement about our own attractiveness and date people that we believe are of similar attractiveness
  • Avoids rejection
A

WALSTER

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16
Q

(Physical attractiveness A03)

The matching hypothesis - dance

  • Paired student randomly
  • Pretty girls asked on second dates even if the boy was less attractive
A

Walster

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17
Q

(Physical attractiveness A03)

The matching hypothesis - photos

  • 99 photos of real couples and randomly paired ones
  • Real couples consistently rated as more alike in attractiveness
A

Murstein

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18
Q

(Physical attractiveness A03)

The matching hypothesis - dating website

  • Analysed activity of 60 heterosexual users: ‘initators’
  • Identifed people they sent messages to: ‘targets’
  • Idea of matching had no influence on who was contacted
  • Responses showed clear evidence of matching
A

Taylor

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19
Q

(Physical attractiveness A03)

The halo effect

  • Less attractive people more likely to be convicted and receive an average 22 months longer sentence than unattractive people
  • Seen as more trustworthy
A

Gunnell and Cici

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20
Q

(Physical attractiveness A03)

Individual differences - The macho scale

  • Ppts asked how much they would like to pursue someone based on a photo and biological information
  • Also completed macho scale questionnaire to assess sexist attitudes
  • High scores more likely to target people based off of appearance
A

Towhey

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21
Q

(Physical attractiveness A03)

Cultural similarities

  • Features such as small nose, large eyes, prominent cheekbones rated as attractive by white, black and hispanic males
A

Cunningham

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22
Q

(Filter theory)

Field of availables - field of desirables

  1. Social demography (accessibility)
  2. Similarity in attitudes (first 18 months)
  3. Complementarity (long-term)
A

KERCKHOFF AND DAVIS

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23
Q

(Filter theory A03)

Research support

  • Similarity in personality, interests and attitudes between partners are typical in the early stages of relationships
A

Winch

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24
Q

(Filter theory A03)

Failure to replicate research

  • Many studies have failed to replicate the findings of the original study
  • May be due to social changes
A

Levinger

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25
Q

(Filter theory A03)

Cause or effect? - Emotional convergence

  • Cohabiting partners most similar in emotional responses: ‘emotional convergence’
A

Andreason

26
Q

(Filter theory A03)

Cause or effect? - Attitude alignment effect

  • We often bring attitudes in line with that of our partner: ‘attitude alignment effect’
A

Davis and Rusbult

27
Q

(Filter theory A03)

Complemetarity or similarity?

  • Similarity increases over time in long-term relationships
  • Complementarity is not always a factor in relationships
A

Andreason

28
Q

(Social exchange theory)

‘Minimax principle’

Comparison level (CL) - Based on previous relationships and observations of others
Comparison level of alternatives (CLalt) - Based on alternative options
  1. Sampling stage
  2. Bargaining stage (beginning of relationship)
  3. Commitment stage (further into relationship)
  4. Institutionalisation (‘settled down’)
A

THIBAULT AND KELLEY

29
Q

(Social exchange theory)

‘Balance sheet’

  • Relationships are like business transactions
  • We keep tabs on profits and losses
  • If costs outweigh rewards we are in a ‘state of loss’
A

HOMANS

30
Q

(Social exchance theory A03)

Do not accept economic metaphor

Two types of relatioships

  1. Exchance relationships (work colleagues) - Involve social exchange
  2. Communal relationships (romantic relationships) - Do not involve social exchange
A

Clark and Mills

31
Q

(Social exchance theory A03)

Direction of cause and effect

  • We do not consider alternatives constantly; this only occurs after dissatisfaction begins
A

Argyle

32
Q

(Equity theory A03)

Supporting research - self-report

  • Survey of 118 married couples
  • 2 self-report scales to measure equity and satisfaction
  • Equitable couples more satisfied
  • Overbenefitters and underbenefitters unhappy
A

Utne

33
Q

(Equity theory A03)

Contradictory findings

  • Equity did not increase in longitudinal study of couples
  • Equity also could not be used to distinguish between those who break up and those who did not
A

McQuinn

34
Q

(Equity theory A03)

Types of relationship

Casual friendship - equity needed
Romantic relationships - mixed evidence for equity

A

Clark and Mills

35
Q

(Equity theory A03)

Cultural differences

Couples in individualist cultures - equity important
Couples in collectivist cultures - happy to overbenefit

A

Aumer-Ryan

36
Q

(Equity theory A03)

Individual differences

‘Benevolents’ - prepared to contribute more
‘Entitleds’ - believe they deserve to be overbenefitted

A

Huseman

37
Q

(Investment model)

  • Satisfaction level
  • Comparisons with alternatives
  • Investment size
    (Intrinsic, extrinsic investments)
  • Relationships maintenance mechanisms
    (AWFPR)

The main psychological factor for staying in relationships is not satisfaction, but commitment.
- Unsatisfied partners may stay because they have made an investment

A

RUSBULT

38
Q

(Investment model A03)

Supporting evidence - Model is accurate

  • Meta-analysis of 52 studies
  • Satisfaction, comaparisons and investment size all predicted relationship commitment
  • Representative: these types of relationships were more stable in all groups (homosexual relationships, other cultures)
A

Le and Agnew

39
Q

(Investment model A03)

Oversimplification of investment - ‘future plans’

Extended model

  • There is more to relationships than resources, particularly in the early days
  • Added ‘future plans’
  • We become committed in order to achieve these earlier on
A

Goodfriend and Agnew

40
Q

(Investment model A03)

Real life application - abusive relationships

  • Visited victims of domestic violence in a shelter
  • Those most likely to return had greater investments in the relationship, and no attractive alternatives
A

Rusbult and Martz

41
Q

(Phase model of relationship breakdown)

  1. Intra-psychic phase
  2. Diadic phase
  3. Social phase
  4. Grave-dressing phase
A

DUCK

42
Q

(Duck’s phase model A03)

Oversimplified - added 5th ‘resurrection phase’

  • ‘Resurrection stage’ - turning attention to future relationships using experience from recently-ended one
A

Duck and Rollie

43
Q

(Duck’s phase model A03)

Doesn’t explain why breakdown occurs - ‘Fatal attraction hypothesis’

  • Qualities originally found attractive can actually cause breakdown as we get ‘too much of what we asked for’
    E.g. good sense of humour/ can’t take anything seriously
A

Flemlee

44
Q

(Duck’s phase model A03)

Real life applications - relationships counselling

  • In the intra-psychic stage, the person should focus on positive attributes their partner has
A

Duck

45
Q

(Duck’s phase model A03)

Cultural bias

  • Individualist cultures - relationships are generally voluntary and often come to an end
  • Collectivist cultures - relationships are harder to end, involve greater family involvement and may be arranged
A

Moghaddam

46
Q

(Virtual relationships: self-disclosure)

Reduced cues theory

  • Computer-mediated communication (emails) less effective as the social cues involved in face to face communication are absent
    E.g. tone of voice, facial expression
  1. Disinihibition - loss of social inhibitors, blunt, impersonal conversation
  2. De-individualisation - loss of individual indentity
A

SPROULL AND KIESLER

47
Q

(Virtual relationships: self-disclosure)

The hyperpersonal model

  • Greater self-disclosure
  • Anonymity, absence of gating

Selective self-presentation - more time to think about responses

A

WALTHER

48
Q

(Virtual relationships: self-disclosure)

‘Boom and bust’ phenomenon (hyperpersonal model)

  • Relationships may also end sooner
  • Initial excitement during self-disclosure not met by reality of face to face conversation
A

COOPER AND SPORTOLARI

49
Q

(Virtual relationships: self-disclosure)

Strangers on a train effect (hyperpersonal model)

  • Anonymity means we feel less accountable for behaviour
  • More self-disclosure
A

Bargh

50
Q

(Virtual relationships)

Absence of gating

  • Allows relationships to ‘get off the ground’ where they may not usually
  • Social/ physical barriers to dating less important
    E.g. social anxiety, physical unattractiveness
A

MCKENNA AND BARGH

51
Q

(Virtual relationships A03)

Dangers of absence of gating

  • 54% of people on dating sites have been involved with someone misrepresenting themselves
A

Smith and Duggan

52
Q

(Virtual relationships A03)

Absence of gating and social anxiety

  • Followed up relationships of socially anxious people after 2 years

Formed online - 70% lasted
Formed offline - 50% lasted

A

McKenna and Bargh

53
Q

(Virtual relationships A03)

Self-disclosure

  • Ppts interacted via a chatroom and then face to face (believed it was 2 different people)
  • Ppts more likely to prefer the ‘person’ they met online
  • Online conversation was more intimate
A

McKenna

54
Q

(Virtual relationships A03)

Relationships are multi-modal

  • Most modern relationships are conducted online and offline
  • Disclosure is very different online than face to face
A

Walther

55
Q

(Parasocial relationships)

  1. Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS)
  2. Absorption -addiction model
    Deficiency - absorption - addiction
A

MCCUTCHEON

56
Q

(Parasocial relationships)

  1. Levels of parasocial relationships
    Entertainment-social
    Intense-personal
    Borderline pathological level
  2. Personality type explanation (ENP)
    Entertainment-social - extraverted
    Intense-personal - neurotic
    Borderline pathological - psychotic
A

MALTBY

57
Q

(Parasocial relationships)

Attachment explanation

  • Insecure-resistant people most likely to form parasocial relationships
  • Can be over-involved without fear of rejection and jealousy
A

AINSWORTH

58
Q

(Parasocial relationships A03)

Body image and celebrity worship

  • Link between the two in 14-16 year old boys and girls
  • Girls in intense-personal relationships more likely to have poor body image
  • May be a precursor to anorexia
A

Maltby

59
Q

(Virtual relationships A03)

No evidence for attachment theory

  • Measured attachment type and used CAS for 299 ppts
  • Insecure ppts no more likely to form parasocial relationships
A

McCutcheon

60
Q

(Virtual relationships A03)

Cultural similarities - Harry Potter

  • Tendency to form parasocial relationship with Harry Potter seems to be universal
  • Used online questionnaire
  • Similar levels in Germany (individualist) and Mexico (collectivist)
A

Schmid and Klimmt

Psychology (8 decks)

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