Relationships Flashcards
What is natural selection
Ability to survive in particular environments (fitness)
What is sexual selection
The ability to attract/ find a mate and reproduce successfully
What is intERsexual selection
Preference of one sex (usually females) for members of the opposite sex who have certain qualities. Eg. Good genes, good resources, good parenting…
Humans are pre programmed to attend to someone who displays these indicators.
What is intERsexual selection
Preference of one sex (usually females) for members of the opposite sex who have certain qualities. Eg. Good genes, good resources, good parenting…
Humans are pre programmed to attend to someone who displays these indicators.
What is intRAsexual selection
Males compete with each other for access to members of the opposite sex- the victorious pass on their genes to next gen.
What did Buss 2003 say
To ensure your offspring has the best survival chances, it pays off to be picky.
What did Singh 1993 say
Men like women with a low waist to hit ratio. Males prefer mates who show signs of fertility such as youth or broader hips
Why could evolutionary explanations of the formation of relationships be culturally bias?
Kassel and Sharma (1999) study on 37 cultures found that men’s access to resources were more valued in cultures where a women’s status and educational prospects were limited.
Explanation underestimates the impact of social and economic factors on partner preference— focusing only on evolutionary factors.
Why can methodological issues into the research of evolutionary explanations be a limitation for its explanation?
Unrepresentative sample.
Buller (2005), most studies that women want high status partners was done on undergraduate female students.
They aim to achieve high educational Statius and high income jobs. Therefore, not surprising results as their aiming for similar goals.
Sample, not generalisable (doesn’t reflect target population) decreases pop. Validity and limits credibility.
What could we see as a strength for evolutionary explanations in the formation of relationships.
Penton-Voak (1999) believed women’s mate choices varied across the menstrual cycle.
Feminised male face- long term. However, during ovulation (high conception rate) a more masculine face was chosen.
Suggesting potential genetic benefit in prodiuctions more masculine offspring.
-maps up with intersexual selection theory, increased credibility of the theory
What is anisogamy
The difference between male and female reproduction.
Women= large, static egg- produced in intervals of limited years. Male= small sperm cell, highly mobile
What is psychical attractiveness
Refers to how appealing someone’s face is
What are some features of psychical attractiveness
Facial symmetry= more attractive as a sign of good genes (Shackleford and Larsen)
Neotenous faces (baby faces)= super ate large eyes, small chin and nose, triggers caring instinct.
What is the halo effect (dion et al. 1972)
Psychically attractive people are strong, kind and sociable compared to unattractive people. The belief that good looking people will have such characteristics that make them more attractive to us, so we behave more positively toward them—> self fulling prophesy.
What was Walster and Walster’s match hypothesis theory
We look for partners that are similar to us in terms of attractiveness, personality, intelligence etc. instead of choosing the most appealing people.
People must assess their own value and then opt for a partner who is of a similar social desirability to themselves (although of course were most attracted to those who are the most socially desirable) in order to maintain the best success- in their league.
What was Walster and Walster’s match hypothesis theory
We look for partners that are similar to us in terms of attractiveness, personality, intelligence etc. instead of choosing the most appealing people.
People must assess their own value and then opt for a partner who is of a similar social desirability to themselves (although of course were most attracted to those who are the most socially desirable) in order to maintain the best success- in their league.
What was the process of Walster’s (1966) computer dance study that contradicted the matching hypothesis
177 males and 170 female students bought welcome week tickets for a computer dance. When they bought the ticket, they were told that information they gave about themselves would be fed into a computer and this would provide an ‘ideal match’ date.
In fact, they were randomly assigned a partner. When students were giving their data (when they booked their ticket) four unseen observers marked them on attractiveness. Participants had to complete a lengthy questionnaire, to assess personality and intelligence and were told the data results would be culminated to match them with their ideal date- however the pairing was completely randomised. After spending two hours with their dates students were asked how much they liked their partner, and then they were asked to compete a similar question are six months later. Those who were physically attractive were liked the most.
What were the findings of the computer dance study and why did they contradict the matching hypothesis?
Men asked out a partner if they found her attractive, regardless of how attractive they were- does not support matching hypothesis as the individuals did not assess their own physical attributes, they went for someone of a higher level of attractiveness.
The matching hypothesis research evidence goes against the principle that we date people similar to us- explain why those is a weakness of physical attraction in explaining relationships
Walster and Walster (1969) found that those at a university dance would most likely want to pursue second dates with those that they find most psychically attractive, disregarding their own levels of physical attraction and any other similarity of the person.
suggesting that the matching hypothesis may be wrong about how people form relationships with people and that instead of looking at those similar to us and going with our realistic choices, we seek out our most ‘desired’ choices and go with those we find most attractive.
Reduces validity of MH.
What counter argument could you make to prove the matching hypothesis is valid.
findings of the study by Berscheid et al. (1971) which replicated the study by Walster and Walster (1969), however, this time participants chose their own partners. This time participants tended to choose partners who matched them in physical attractiveness.
shows that when looking who to date we do take into account our own values of attractiveness and go with those that match our levels of attractiveness- reflects the explanation that is proposed by matching hypothesis and adds validity to the explanation.
means that potentially the results by Walster and Walster (1969) were perhaps a result of their methodology- people do indeed look for people that similar to them when they are given the chance to match themselves with a partner first.
Explain how Touhey (1979) research can contradict the matching hypothesis in explaining the formation of relationships.
Touhey (1979) asked male and female participants to rate how much they would like a target individual based on their photograph and some biographical info
also completed a questionnaire to measure sexist attitudes (MACHO scale).
Participants who scored high on MACHO scale were more influenced by psychical attractiveness. Low scores were less influenced.
suggests that the matching hypothesis may be incorrect when suggesting how and why people form relationships- The male participants= extreme political views which can influence the way men value/level attractiveness.
What research could you use to support the theory of psychical attractiveness and facial symmetry by Shackleford and Larsen
Cunningham et al (1995) female features of large cheekbones, small nose and high eyebrows were rated as highly attractive by white, Hispanic, and Asian males. Physical attractiveness therefore is consistent across cultures.
Symmetry is a sign of genetic fitness Importance of this makes sense in terms of the evolutionary explanation
What is self disclosure
Self disclosure involves revealing personal information about yourself. Romantic partners reveal more about their true selves as the relationship develops.
These revelations strengthen the relationship if used appropriately.
What was Altman and Taylor’s idea about breadth and depth.
- Relationships are a gradual process as you’re slowly revealing your true self to a person. It is also a reciprocal exchange. Only happens when you’ve built and established trust with an individual- reduces embarrassment.
There are two elements to this idea- breadth and depth. Low risk superficial information early on, high risk personal or core information comes out as the relationship progresses.
What is the meaning of depenetration
Tendency for dissatisfied partners to self- disclose less as they gradually disengage from the relationship.
What did Reis and Shaver say about the relationship between reciprocity and self disclosure
Reciprocity of disclosure is essential to develop a relationship. This increases intimacy and develops your relationship.
What was the produced of spreecher et al.s 2013 study into self disclosure
Interested in whether reciprocal self- disclosure was more influential in determining attraction than one-sided self-disclosure and listening.
Participants= 156 undergraduate students US university paired into two person dyads/ pairs. Approximately two thirds of the dyads were female-female and one third were male-female each dyad of unacquainted individuals engaged in a self disclosure task over Skype.
In the reciprocal condition= dyad members immediately took turns asking questions and disclosing.
The other condition= more of an interview setting. Then the two switched interviewer roles.
After each interaction, the researchers assessed liking, closeness, perceived similarity and enjoyment of the interaction.
What did spreecher et al.s 2013 study find about self disclosure
individuals in the reciprocal condition reported more liking, closeness, perceived similarities, and enjoyment of the interaction compared to those in the second conditions.
turn-taking self disclosure reciprocity increases likelihood to lead to positive interpersonal outcomes than extended reciprocity.
What did the supporting research study by Sprecher and Hendricks (2004) show about self disclosure
heterosexual dating couples- Strong connections between measures of satisfaction and self disclosure.
(Only heterosexual, only shows correlation- no causation/ effect?)
What research support is there for self disclosure strengthening relationships/bonds between two people
Sprecher and Hendricks (2004)- heterosexual dating couples. Strong connections between measures of satisfaction and self disclosure.
Heterosexual couples, self disclosure important for relationship satisfactory. Strengthen connection between two partners by eliminating embarrassment of secrecy.
Research support aids credibility.
However, specific sample group limits generalisability of findings.
Why can cultural differences be a weakness of self disclosure?
Tang et al (2013) → sexual self-disclosure of men/women in USA disclose is greater than men/women in China.
Nakanishi (1986)→ Japanese women prefer a lower level of personal conservation than Japanese men…opposite to typical self-disclosure patterns.
- Self disclosure may still be important but not in the same pattern as individualistic cultures = culturally biased
What can we say about internet self disclosure being a limitation for the formation of successful relationships.
Relationships over the internet can have a higher level of disclosure as people feel more anonymous and therefore able to disclose intimate details without embarrassment.
Cooper and Sportolari called this the “boom and bust phenomenon” as you fall in love quickly (boom) but when people meet in person the lack of established trust and knowledge causes the relationship to fail (bust).
What is the filter theory by kerckhoff and Davis (1962)
Filter theory was created as a result to explain how relationships form and develop. We all have a field of available (e.g. all the people we could form a relationship with), but not everyone who is available is desirable. There are a series of factors or filters which narrow down our potential partners to a field of desirables.
What are the three levels of the filter theory?
Social demography 1st level
Similarity in attitudes 2nd level
Complementarity 3rd level
What is social demography aka level 1 in the filter theory diagram
Accessibility is key, our partner choices are narrowed by social circumstances- anyone too far away is discounted.
Results in homogamy = forming relationships with those similar to us
What’s is similarity in attitudes in the filter theory diagram
Common social and cultural characteristics . Kerckhoff and Davi’s- similarity of attitudes important for couples who have been together less than than 18 months
What is complementarity in the filter theory diagram
Couples complement each other by developing traits that the others lack. Kerckhoff and Davi’s= complementarity is essential for long term relationships.
Belief that together they are whole.
What are some A03 negatives of self disclosure- filter theory
Culture= based on western cultures- where we can interact with lots of people in urban setting.
Reductionism: What about biological factors? In Evolution, our ancestors chose a mate on the basis of survival. The men would seek a female who could give birth to and nurture their offspring in order to pass on the best genes.
Individual differences: Ignores the influence of early childhood experience and attachment style. What about personality factors?
Date: Outdated. The theory was created 50 years ago. Have relationships changed since then? There were less transport links and no internet. It is easier to be close in proximity and to be mobile today. Internet dating and long-distance relationships common today!
What points can you make regarding the relationship between temporal validity and the filter theory
- Rise of online dating has reduced the importance of social demographic variables Mobile apps like Tinder etc have made meeting partners easier than ever. May pursue a relationship with someone outside the usual demographic limits (e.g. Formation of Relationships)
What is Thibaut and Kelley (1959) theory of social exchange
- the rewards of a relationship- the costs of the relationship= outcome.
- We don’t want a loss in relationships- leads to self-dissatisfaction.
- The commitment to a relationship is dependant upon profitability!
What is Thibaut and Kelley (1959) theory of social exchange
- the rewards of a relationship- the costs of the relationship= outcome.
- We don’t want a loss in relationships- leads to self-dissatisfaction.
- The commitment to a relationship is dependant upon profitability!
What type of theory is the social exchange theory
An economic theory
How can you explain the subjectivity of rewards in the social exchange theory
Rewards are subjective. That is what you might find to be rewarding in a relationship, your partner may not see the same thing as a reward.
Similarly, what we see as valuable or costly might change over the course of the relationships.
What are the 4 stages in thibault and Kelley’s social exchange model
Sampling
Bargaining
Commitment
Institutionalisation
What is sampling in thibault and Kelley’s social exchange model
The couple explores rewards and costs in all their relationships from platonic, maternal etc.
What is sampling in thibault and Kelley’s social exchange model
The couple explores rewards and costs in all their relationships from platonic, maternal etc.
