relationships

Question 1

sperm cell characteristics

Answer 1

energetically cheap
extremely small
highly mobile

Question 2

sexual selection

Answer 2

-explains why certain seemingly disadvantageous characteristics from an evolutionary point of view are still passed on

because these characteristics may be advantageous for sexual selection
e.g. males behave more aggressively have greater chance of protecting their female from competing males

females with characteristics of fertility e.g. narrow waist large hips

determine which genes passed on to offspring through process of heredity

Question 3

egg cell characteristics

Answer 3

energetically expensive
relatively large
static

Question 4

inter sexual selection

Answer 4

preferred female strategy

quality over quantity

favoured by females as they place greater investment into time, raising a child in comparison to males

need to make sure partner is right genetic fit by being willing to provide resources to support her and child

female more selective as produce limited numbers of egg cells

limited reproductive resources

Question 5

example of inter sexual selection

Answer 5

fishers sexy son hypothesis

suggest females who mate with males who have certain characteristics e.g height
their son will then inherit this sexy trait

Question 6

intra sexual selection

Answer 6

preferred male strategy
quantity over quality approach
favoured by males as their male strategy is to mate with as many fertile females as possible
winner of competition reproduces and passes on the genes to his offspring that contributed to his success

e.g. larger male will fight off his competitors and have stronger sons

Question 7

A03 for evolutionery explanations

Answer 7

research support for inter sexual selection-Clark and Hatfield

research support for partner preferences to anigisonomy-Buss

weakness-partner preferences ignore cultural and social influences

Question 8

research support on inter sexual selection (Clark and Hatfield)

Answer 8

showed females are more selective
used both male and female psychology students
sent out across uni campus
approached other students and asked them 1 of 3 questions

Would you go on a date with me

would you go back to my apartment

would you have sex with me

results Q1 50% 50%
Q2 69% 6%
Q3 75% 0%

shows support for idea that men want to impregnate as many women as possible due to high sperm rate production with little energy required

shows females more selective

CP-criticised for having narrow sample (undergraduate studies)
does not use all types of people

hard to conclude where older, non student sample would be as selective

Question 9

strength-research support for partner preferences for anisogamy

Answer 9

Buss
conducted survey of over 10,000 adults in 33 countries
asked questions relating to age and variety of attibutes that evolutionery theory predicts is important in partner preference

found females place greater value on resource related characteristics e.g. good financial prospects

found males put more importance on good looks an chastity and prefer younger mates more then females do

Question 10

what is anisogamy

Answer 10

differences between male and female sex cells

Question 11

what is chasitity

Answer 11

vrigin

Question 12

weakness-partner preferences ignore social and cultural influences

Answer 12

partner preferences have been influenced by change in social norms
develop much quicker then evolutionary timescales imply and came about due to cultural factors e.g availability of contraception

women’s greater role in workforce means not as dependent on men to provide for them

Question 13

self disclosure definition

Answer 13

revealing personal info about yourself
romantic partners reveal more about true selves as relationship develops
self disclosures can strengthen romantic bond

Question 14

social penetration theory

Answer 14

gradual process of revealing personal info, of giving away deepest thoughts and feelings

in romantic relationships, involves reciprocal exchange of info between intimate partners

one partner reveals personal info, signalling ‘i trust you’

go further, other partner must reveal sensitive info

increasingly disclose more and more, penetrate more into each other lives, gain greater understanding of each other

Question 15

onion analogy

Answer 15

relationship progresses, more layers of onion are removed
representing deeper and more meaningful info being disclosed

only likely to occur if exchange of info is reciprocal

exchanges represents a stage in relationship which is serious and characterised by trust

Question 16

breadth and depth of self disclosure

Answer 16

both increase, partners become more committed to eachother

start of relationship what we reveal is described as superficial meaning at low risk and would tell anyone

breadth of disclosure is narrow as most topics are off limit

if reveal too much too soon, can be seen as TMI and can threaten relationship before it’s really got going

relationship progresses, reveal more about true selves

eventually, able to reveal high risk info e.g past experiences

Question 17

strange of self disclosure

Answer 17

support from research studies

laurenceau used method involved writing daily diary enteries
found self disclosure and perception of self disclosure in a partner were linked to higher levels of intimacy in long term married couples

reverse was also true

strength as suggests that the depth and breadth of self disclosure is strongly predictable of the intimacy and quality of romantic relationships
supports validity of social penetration theory as indicator of relationship quality

Question 18

weakness of self disclosure

Answer 18

Tan get al
social penetration theory is not applicable to all cultures

prediction that increasing depth and breadth of self disclosure will lead to more satisfying and intimate relationship is not true for all cutlrures

tang concluded that men and women is us (individualist) self disclose significantly more sexual thought and feeling than men and women in china (collectivist)

weakness as it suggests that self disclosure theory is therefore a limited explanation of romantic relationships
not generalisable to other cultures

Question 19

strength of self disclosure

Answer 19

real life applications

has and stattford have shown that an increased understanding of the importance of self disclosure in building and maintaining intimacy within relationships can have real life advantage

researchers found that for couples with high level of intimacy and commitment, 57% reported use of self disclosure as a way to maintain it and deepen their committed relationships

therefore, supports use of therapies which focus on increasing the depth and breadth of self disclosure for couples who struggle with intimacy as well as trust within relationship
also increases validity if social penetration theory

Question 20

physical attractiveness

Answer 20

shackelford and larson found that people were classed as more attractive if they had

symmetrical faces because may be honest signal of genetic fitness(harder to fake)

baby face features e.g smooth chin, small nose. widely separated large eyes, trigger a protective and caring instinct, valuable for resource for females wanting to reproduce

Question 21

halo effect

Answer 21

suggests that we have a tendency to associate attractive people with preconceived disproportionately positive characteristics e.g wealth even though these factors may not be linked

therefore, more likely to view them as kind, social, more successful compared to unattractive people

therefore, makes us even more attracted to them so we believe positively towards them-self fulfilling prospheracy

Question 22

matching hypothesis

Answer 22

states that people choose romantic partners who are roughly a similar attractiveness to each other

we desire most physically attractive partner for evolutionary, social and cultural psychological reasons

however, balance this against wish to avoid being rejected by someone out of our league, someone who is unlikely to consider us physically attractive

there is a difference between what we would like in an ideal partner and what we are prepared to settle for

Question 23

filter theory definition

Answer 23

an explanation of relationship formation

suggest that there are several important filters

help people to sift through potential partners to chose the right one
social demography, similarity in attitudes, complementarity

Question 24

social demography

Answer 24

refers to wide range of factors all which influence chances of potential partners meeting in first place e.g geographical location(proximity)
social class
religion

Question 25

similarity in attitudes

Answer 25

in early stages, we find partners who share same values attractive

therefore, we tend to discount those who significantly differ from us in their attitudes

need for partners in early stages to agree with basic values. encourages deeper communication and promotes self disclosure

Question 26

complementarity

Answer 26

concerns ability for romantic partners to meet each others needs
similarity becomes less important at later stages and is replaced by need for partner to balance out your traits with opposite ones of their own e.g one partner enjoying being made to laugh, another partner enjoying making them laugh

Question 27

a03-strength of filter theory

Answer 27

supporting research

evidence to support that filter theory is an important predictor of progression and initial development of a relationship
as suggested by Winch
he found initial similarities in beliefs and attitudes were citied as one of most attractive features in the partners of respondents

strength as shows even in modern age filter theory and matching hypothesis are still valid explanations for relationship formation

Question 28

strength of filter theory

Answer 28

supporting research
Festinger observed friendships that formed in block of apartments for married students who lived across 17 buildings
results showed most popular people lived closest to staircases and post-boxes
these students were more likely to be bumped into and had most contact and formed friendships with other residents in the block
strength as supports social demography as a factor affecting attraction
also supports idea that most meaningful interactions are with people nearby

Question 29

social exchange theory

Answer 29

economic theory of how relationships form and develop

claims partners in relationships strive to maximise rewards e.g. support, companionship and minimise costs e.g. commitments

Question 30

rewards costs and profits

Answer 30

ideas of rewards and costs are subjective
what is considered costly by one person can be seen as low cost or even reward for another
also value of rewards and costs may change throughout course of relationship
what is seen as costly or rewarding in early stages, may becomes less as time goes on

Question 31

comparison level

Answer 31

based on persons idea pf how much reward they deserve to receive in a relationship

perception becomes more sophisticated and accurate with experience as can base our CL off a larger number of experiences and relationships

also influenced by social and cultural factors e.g books, tv programmes

closely linked to self esteem
person with high self esteem likely to have higher expectations of rewards within relationship
person with low self esteem will have lower expectations

person will feel the relationship should be pursued if its equal to or above what they experienced in previous relationships

Question 32

comparison level for alternatives

Answer 32

concerns a persons perception as to whether other relationships or staying on their own would be more rewarding then current relationship

will stay in current relationship only if we believe its more rewarding then alternatives

if costs outweigh rewards, then alternatives become more attractive

duck says if people consider themselves to be content in their current relationship, they may not even notice that there are available alternatives

Question 33

stages of relationship development

Answer 33

Sampling stage-people explore potential rewards and costs of relationship not just romantic ones by observing others

Bargaining stage-beginning of relationship when romantic partners exchange rewards and costs and discuss what’s most profitable

Commitment stage-as relationship becomes more stable, partners become more familiar with rewards and costs and expectations so rewards increase and costs lessen

Institutionalisation stage-partners now settle down because norms of the relationship rewards and costs are firmly established

Question 34

a03-weakness (2) of the social exchange theory

Answer 34

SET is reductionist- basing explanation of complex phenomena or romantic relationships purely on costs and rewards makes it reductionist
limits range of real life romantic experiences it can explain

e.g. does not explain why some people stay in abusive relationships despite lack of rewards and overwhelming costs

weakness as shows a holistic approach may be better in studying romantic relationships

lacks mundane realism-
emerson and cook designed lab study
where each of 112 participants were bargaining with a partner to maximise personal score on computer game. Relationships between these partners are nothing like real life romantic relationships which are based on getting to know each other and establishing trust

weakness as these studies lack validity making SET less applicable to real life romantic relationships

study tip:MR
maddie rose

Question 35

strength of SET

Answer 35

supporting research

Sprecher found that comparison levels for alternatives were a strong predictor of commitment within a relationships
rewards were important as a predictor of satisfaction especially for women
strength as supports the idea that some people choose to stay in their current relationships while it remains more profitable then alternatives

Question 36

equity theory

Answer 36

economic theory which suggests that partners are concerned about fairness
in relationships

fairness is achieved when people feel they get what they deserve from relationship

not the size of the rewards and costs that matter: its the ratio of the two to each other

Question 37

role of equity

Answer 37

equity means fairness
what matters is both partners level of profit (rewards-costs) are roughly the same

when there is lack of equity, one partner over benefits and one under benefits- recipe for dissatisfaction and unhappiness

under benefit feels dissatisfaction e.g. resentment

over benefit feels guilt and shame

Question 38

equity and equality

Answer 38

according to equity theory, not size of ornament of rewards and costs but the ratio of the two to each other

if one partner puts lot into relationship and gets a lot out this will be fair enough

ensures rewards are distributed fairly not necceasrily equal between the partners

Question 39

ducks model of relationship definition

Answer 39

explanation of the stages people go through when their relationship is not working

when one partner is dissatisfied, there are four phases in the process

Question 40

what are the 4 phases of ducks model

Answer 40

intra psychic phase
dyadic phase
social phase
grave dressing phase

Question 41

intra psychic phase

Answer 41

partner weighs up the pros and cons of the relationship and evaluate these against the alternatives including being alone
e.g i cant stand this anymore

Question 42

dyadic phase

Answer 42

individuals confront their partner and discuss their feelings and future of the relationship
couples become aware of the forces that bind them together e,g children that would be incurred if they broke up
two possible outcomes-determination to continue breaking up or a desire to repair it

Question 43

social phase

Answer 43

break up is made public-partners will seek support

mutual friends are expected to choose a side

gossip is encouraged

some friends provide reassurance and place the blame on one partner or the other

Question 44

grave dressing phase

Answer 44

once relationship is dead, its time to bury it

each partner must present themselves to others as being trust worthy and loyal to attract a new partner

individuals create a favourable story about the breakup which presents them in a positive light and the other partner in bad light

gossip plays important role

Question 45

weakness-there are methodological issues within Ducks phase model or relationship breakdown

Question 46

definition of Rusbults investment model of relationships

Answer 46

theory which explains why some people may remain in a relationship while others may not

Question 47

what 5 things need to be mentioned in A01 of Rusbult

Answer 47

Satisfaction
Investment size
Comparison with alternatives
Commitment level
Relationship maintenance mechanisms

study tip : SICC R

Question 48

satisfaction

Answer 48

based on concept of comparison level

satisfying relationship judged by comparing rewards and costs

seen as profitable if many rewards e.g sex and few costs e.g arguments
each partner is staisfied if they get more out of relationship then previous experiences

Question 49

investment size

Answer 49

measure of all the resources that are attached to the relationship, and which would reduce in value or be lost completely if relationship ended

two major types
intrinsic-any resources that we put directly into relationship e.g tangible things such as cash

extrinsic investment-resources that previously did not feature in relationship but now closely associated with it e.g house

Question 50

comparison with alternatives

Answer 50

leads to partner asking themselves would my needs be met otuside of my current relationship either with someone else or by myself

Question 51

commitement level

Answer 51

likelhood that an involvement will persist
high when satisfaction is high
low when satisfaction is low

Question 52

relationship maintenace mechnsims

Answer 52

put their partners interst firsr and forgive them for both minor and serious mistakes

Question 53

virtual relationships definition

Answer 53

relationships where people are not physically present but communicate exclusively using online methods such as emails

Question 54

adv of virtual relationships

Answer 54

don’t have to meet up

don’t require much time and effort

less arguments

Question 55

dis of virtual relationships

Answer 55

may not be who they think they are

fake what they look like (catfish)

ghost you

Question 56

face to face vs online relationships

Answer 56

idea that self disclosure tends to occur much faster in virtual relationship
reason for this is animosity, people tend to hold off disclosing personal info in real life for fear of rejection , unless confident enough that personal experiences they share to that person wont then leak it to mutual friends

Question 57

hyperpersonal model

Answer 57

Walther argues that online relationships can be more personal and involve greater self disclosure then FtF ones
due to idea that online relationships can develop much quicker as self disclosure happens earlier
once established, more intense and intimate

according to hyperpersonal model, feature of self disclosure in virtual relationships is that sender has more time to manipulate their own image than they would in FtF situation

Question 58

stranger on the train effect

Answer 58

Rubin explained that we are more likely to disclose personal info to people we dont know and wont see again

Question 59

reduced cues theory

Answer 59

Keisler and Sproull through their Reduced cues theory, suggests CMC relationships may have poorer levels of intimacy and delayed self disclosure because some of the vital cues present in FtF relationships such as facial expressions and voice intonation are not present in CMC relationships leader to the de-individualisation of each partner

Question 60

absence of gating in virtual relationships

Answer 60

a gate is any obstacle to the formation of a relationship
FtF interaction is gated in that it involves many features that interfere with the early development of a relationship
examples of gates include physical unattractivess, a stammer, social anxiety (shyness, blushing etc)

Question 61

weakness-lack of research support for the reduced cues theory

Answer 61

theory is wrong to suggest that non-verbal cues are entirely missing from CMC. They are different rather than absent. Walther and Tidwell suggest that people in online interactions use cues which are different from those in face to face ones. Such cues include the style and timing of messages

Question 62

strength-research support for the hyperpersonal model

Answer 62

predicts that people arer motivated to self-disclose in CMC in ways which are sometimes ‘hyperhonest’ and ‘hyperdishonest’ online disclosures

Question 63

strength-social media has helped form friendships for shy people

Answer 63

social media sites such as Facebook have social benefits by helping shy people have better quality friendships. foe example, Baker and Oswald tested whether shy people really do benefit from internet use

Question 64

weakness-virtual relationships in social media doo not distingush tupes of CMC

Answer 64

level of self disclosure varies considerably and its extent and depth depend very much on the type of CMC being used

Question 65

equity theory

Answer 65

economic theory that suggesys partners are concerned with fariness in a relationship
fairness achieved if people feel they get what they deserve in realtionship
not the size of the rewards and costs that matter,it is the ratio of the two to eachotherr

Question 66

role of equity

Answer 66

term means fairness
what matters most with equity is that both partners level of profit (reward minus costs) roughly the same
when there is a lack of equity meaning one partner over benefits or one partner underbenefits then this causes recipe for dissatisfction and unhappiness
one who over benfitis may feel gulit and shame
one who underbenfits feel greatest disatifaction e.g resentment

Question 67

equity and equality

Answer 67

not the size of rewards and cost whihc matter, ratio between the two to each other
if one person puts a lot into realitosnhip, but gets a lot out of it then thats fair enough

Question 72

rusbults investment model of relationships

Answer 72

definition-theory which explains why osme people may remain in a relationship while others may not
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Question 72

consequences of inequality

Answer 72

problems arise when one partner puts a great deal into the relaitonship but gets little from it
what makes us most disattisfied is a change in the level of perceived equity as time goes on

Question 73

investment size

Answer 73

measure of all resoyrces that are attached to the relationship

intrinisc investment-any resoruecs whcih we put directly into relationship
tangible things e.g money

extrinisc invesmtnet-resourecs whhich did not previously feature in relaitonship but now closley associtedd with it
e.g house car

Question 73

satifaction

Answer 73

based on concept of comparison level

satisyfing relaitonship is judged by comparing rewards and costs
seen as profitbale if it has many rewards e.g sex, companisonship and little costs e.g stress arguments

Question 74

sompariosn with alternatives

Answer 74

leads to partners asking themselves could my needs be better met outside of my current relationship
are the alternatives more rewarding and less costly

Question 75

ducks model

Answer 75

explanation of stages people go through when therir relaitonship is not working
once partner is dissatified, the process each with a different focus

Question 76

intra psychic phase

Answer 76

partmer weighs up pors and cins of the relaitonship and evalutts these against the alternatives
i cant stand this anymore

Question 77

social phase

Answer 77

break up is made public-partners will seek support
mutual freinds aer expected to choose a side
gossip is traded and encouraged
some freinds provide reassurance whilst others will be judgmental and place the balme on one partner ot antoher

Question 77

dyadic phase

Answer 77

individuals confront t their partner and sicus their feeling sand future
couples become aware of forces that bind them together e.g children and costs that would be incurred if they broke up
two possible outcoes-determnation to continue breaking up or a desire to repair it

Question 78

grave dressing phase

Answer 78

once relaitonship is dead, time to bury it
stratigeiclaly reinterrpreat the view of the partner
create a favourable syory about the breakup which presnts them in a postive light and other in a bad light
gossip plays an important role

Question 79

virtual relationships

Answer 79

relationships where people are not phsycially present but communicate exculsivle using online methods sucg as emails, soical media, texting

face to face v online relaitonships

Question 80

hyperpersonal model

Answer 80

online realitosnhops can be more personal ad involve greater self dicolosure than f to face ones

Question 80

sexual selction

Answer 80

explains why certainly disadvantgeus charctiertsidstics from an evolutionery point of view are still passed on
this is because it may be advnatgeous for seuxal selection e.g male who behaves agressively, more chance of protecting female from comepting male
anigosmy-differences in male and female sex cells
sperm cell
energetically cheap
extremely small
high;y mobile

egg cell
energetically expensive
rlaitovely large
static

inter secual selction
female preffered stratgey
qulaity over quanity approach
favoured by females as place greater investment in time, reosurecs for rasing hild compared ot males
they want o assure the male is the right genetic fit, willing to and can provide for her and child
egg cells are produced in limited numbers of intervals meansing females tedn to eb more selctive as to whp they choose to mate with fishesrs sexy son hypothsis

intra sexual selcetion
male pr3ffeeed strategy
quanity over qulity approach
favoured by males as have optimal mating stretgy to Mate with as many fertaile females as possible
if in comp, reproduces and passes on gene to offspring which contributed to their sucess

support for partner prefernces of anigmosy
buss conducted surevy of 10,000 aduats in 33 counteries
asked questions on age and varitey of attiubutes which evolutionery thery predict is important for partner preference
female-placed greater value on resource related charctietis e.g finaical prospects
male-placed greater impotance on good looks and charisity and preffered younger mates to females

support for inter sexual selction
clark and hatfield showed that females are more selctive
asked female and male psychology students togo around uni campus asking 1 of 3 questions
would you go on date with me 50 50
woudl you go back to my apratment 69 6v
would you have sex with me 75 0
shows that males have a pre-dispostiion to want to mate with as many fertile females as psosible due to high sperm porducion and little enrgy required
also shows females are more slctive
howeevr, criticed for using narrow sample of undergraduates
dont know if non-student older smaple would be more selctive
not gernlisbale to ALL females

ignores social and cultural differences
partner prefernces have chnaged rapidly due to changes in social norms
cultural factors may include the use of contraception
increase in amount of women in workforce means they dont rely on men to provide resices
may show chnage in partner prefernec, being no longer reouce orientated

Question 80

face to face v online realtionships

Answer 80

one prominent difference is that self disclosure tends to occur much faster
one reason is th anlaymity, people tend to hold off disclosing personal info in real life for fear of being ridiculed or rejectio
unelss confident enough that they can trust that person
musch less risk in virtual relaitonships so people can shareexperinces and throught without risk of getting to people they know

Question 81

self disclosure

Answer 81

revelaing ersonal info. in romanctic relaitonships, as relaitonship develops, reveal more, strengthening romantic bond

social penetration theory-gradual process of revealing personal info
in romancit relaitonships, recipriocal exchange of info
e.g one partner reveals personal info signalling ‘i trust you’
other partner must then to go further reveal sentive info
more they disclose, more they penrate into eachother lives, greater understanding of eachother

onion analogy-as relaionship progresses, more layers are removed represnting deeper adn more meaningful info being reveale. has to be repirocal, e.e the other person showing empahty and revealing perosnal info about themselves such exchange represnets a stage in relationship which is serious and characteristeed by trust

bread and depth of self disclsoure-as both increase, become more commited to eachoerh
early stages of relationship, what we reveal is superficial meaning on the surface and low risk, would tell anyone e.g freinds and fiaimly
bradth f self discosure is narrow meaning most topics are off limit
if reveal too much too sonn, may get reposne tmi, threatning realtionship before really stated
as relationship porgresses, reveal more high risk info e.gp ast expeirnecs

sacred

support from resaerch studies
laurenceau used method involving writing daily diary enteires
found that self disclosure and perception of self disclosure in partner were linked to higher levels of intimacy in long term married couples
strength as suggest that depth and breadth of self disclosure make it strongly predictbale of the intimacy and quality of romantic relationships

cultural differences
social penetraiton theory is not applicable to all cultures
tang concludes that individualst cultures e.g us self disclosure significantly more sexual throuhts and feelings then men and women in china (collectivist)
wekaness as shows limited explanation of romantic relationships

real world applications
research into self disclosure can help people who want to communicate in theirr relationships
use self disclosure delibertaly nad skillfully from time to time to increase intimacy and strengthen their bond
foudn that couples with high level so fintinacy, 57% reprted the use of self disclsoure as a way to maintin and deepen commitedd relaitonships

Question 82

physcial attractivness

Answer 82

shackelforx and larson foun that people with symatircal faces seen as more attracive, honest singal of genetic fitness

also those with babdy face feautues e.g delicate chin, small nose and wide alreg eyes as tirgger protive instrinct-impiratnt for femaleas wanting to repordicue

halo effect-tenacy to associate highly attracive peiple with pre-concived dieporstily postive charactietids e.g wealth even tho may not be linked
find attractive poeple kind, social in comparion to unattraive poeple
makes us even more attraced to us-self fulfilling prosperachy

matching hypothsis-states we choose romantic partner who are sourghly same attractivness as us
desire highly atrtaive poeple due to evoultionery factrs
balance tjis aganst wthe wish to not be rejected from someone out of our leage
differene in what we see in ideal partneradn what were prepeared to settle for

RICH

reseach support for halo effect
peterson and plamer found that physically attracive people were rated as more politically knowledge then unattatcive popel. halo effect was that powerrful that it persisted even when participantss knew that these knowledge peoplle had no particualr expertise

individual difefrences
shown that halo effect and phsycial attractivenss may vary in its importance as predictor of quanlty of early relaitonships