Relationships Flashcards
State the factors affecting attraction in romantic relationships
- physical attraction
- self-disclosure
- filter theory
Explain physical attraction
Often the first part of attraction as physical characteristics provide an immediate way to select potential partners.
Explain an evolutionary explanation (sexual selection) of physical attraction
Psychologists found that people with symmetrical faces are consistently rated as more attractive. This is because symmetry is a reliable indicator as it requires genetic precision and an environment of abundance during development.
Explain an evolutionary explanation (baby face) of physical attraction
People are also attracted to those with neotenous features such as widely separated and large eyes, a delicate chin and small nose. This is because these trigger a protective or caring instinct.
Outline the halo effect as an explanation of physical attraction
The preconceived notion that all attractive people must have universally positive traits
It produces a disproportionate valuing of an attractive person: their beauty can lead others to attribute other positive traits to them e.g. kindness, sociability, trustworthiness.
Therefore, we may respond more positively towards them (the self-fulfilling prophecy i.e. someone is treated well so they are likely to behave more positively as a result of this).
Explaining the matching hypothesis as an explanation of physical attraction
Walster suggested that we tend to choose partners who we think are similar in physical attractiveness to ourselves. Therefore, choice of partner is a compromise - we avoid rejection by selecting for those who are ‘in our league’.
He designed a study to test this called ‘The computer dance’.
Outline the procedure of the matching hypothesis
1) Male and female students were invited to a dance.
2) They were rated for physical attractiveness by objective observers at the start.
3) They also completed a questionnaire about themselves.
4) They were told that the data about themselves (personality, self-esteem etc) would be put into a computer program that would assign them a dance partner.
- In reality, they were assigned randomly
Outline the findings from the matching hypothesis
The hypothesis was not supported as students showed preference for those who were rated the most attractive, regardless of their perception of their own attractiveness.
However, another psychologist replicated the study but with a variation where people were allowed to choose their own partners. This time participants did indeed choose those who matched them in physical attractiveness.
Outline a weakness of the matching hypothesis
beta bias and inter-sexual selection
POINT - The beta bias can be used to dispute the matching hypothesis theory. It defines as the minimisation of the differences between men and women.
EVIDENCE - The matching hypothesis assumes that men and women are the same. However, Meltzer et al found that men tend to rate their long-term relationships more satisfying if their partner is physically attractive, but women don’t.
ELABORATE - This shows a clear gender difference when it comes to physical attractiveness. To further support this, it could be argued that women who are physically more attractive than their partner is a demonstration of the evolutionary explanations for partner preferences. For example, inter-sexual selection is the preferred strategy of the females, in choosing a partner, as they favour quality over quantity. Hence why an unattractive male partner could be one who has resources, like money.
LINK - Therefore, the matching hypothesis is clearly not applicable to all couples, thus reducing its external validity.
COUNTER - However, these theories are centred around only physicality’s and ignore other factors such as self-disclosure, which could be argued as the more important in attraction, as it strengthens a romantic bond when used appropriately.
Outline a strength of ‘the baby face’ as an evolutionary explanation for physical attraction
POINT - The ‘baby face’ theory has universal application.
EVIDENCE - Psychologists found that women who had features of large eyes, prominent cheekbones, small nose and high eyebrows were rated as highly attractive by white, Hispanic and Asian men.
ELABORATE - The researchers concluded that what is considered physically attractive is remarkably consistent across different societies. Attractive features are a sign of genetic fitness and therefore perpetuated similarly in all cultures.
LINK - Therefore, the importance of physical attractiveness makes sense at an evolutionary level and isn’t affected extensively by cultural relativism.
Explain self-disclosure
The personal information we choose to reveal about ourselves in a romantic relationship. This would include our hopes, dreams and desires, as well as dislikes and fears. It’s said to a strengthen a romantic bond by creating feeling of intimacy and trust.
State the theories of romantic relationships
- Social exchange theory
- Equity
- Rusbult’s investment model
- Duck’s phase model
Outline a weakness of the social exchange theory (determinism)
POINT - Takes a deterministic view of romantical relationships
EXPLAIN - Tib it states that when costs > rewards, individuals will leave the relationship
EVIDENCE - SET been criticised for not being able to explain people that stay in relationships where there’s domestic violence. There are more costs yet individual doesn’t leave
LINK - Therefore, the SET can’t explain all types of situationships
COUNTER - Rusubult argues that these situations are better explained by the investment model: explains how women stay in abusive relationships bc they don’t want to lose their investments, such as resources they’ve put into the relationships
Outline a strength of the social exchange theory (ICBT)
POINT - SET has been useful in developing Integrated Behavioural Couples Therapy (ICBT).
EXPLAIN - Involves teaching couples to replace - exchanges with + ones to maximise profit n minimise loss.
EVIDENCE - Many couples that received this therapy reported feeling more satisfied.
LINK - This demonstrates the useful practical application of the theory.
COUNTER - However, notion of people keeping a tally of profits and losses has been criticised by psychologists. Unlikely to keep a log especially at start of relationship. Tally system more likely in work interactions, where exchange is more important.
Outline a strength of the social exchange theory (support from several studies)
POINT - Several studies have been conducted to provide support for the SET.
EXPLAIN - Research was carried out on a sample of hetero and homo couples costs and rewards, as well as comparison levels for alternatives.
EVIDENCE - Psychologists found that relationship satisfaction was always reported higher when the partners perceived the benefits of their current relationship to outweigh the costs and that alternative relationships were less appealing.
LINK - Thus, demonstrating the importance of the SET in all types of relationships.
COUNTER - However, the use of a questionnaire has been criticised. Tib couples could be influenced by social desirability bias, not wanting to appear like they’re being negative about their partner. Therefore, the methodology used to support SET lacks scientific rigour.
Explain one way in which profit is measured in a romantic relationship (CL)
The first comparison level (CL) refers to our perception of what we’re worth and so what we can get out of a relationship.
It develops out of our experiences of previous relationships which feed into our expectations of the current one.
CL is also influenced by social and cultural norms, such as what books and TV consider to be a reasonable level of reward and what depicts a good or bad relationship.
Our CL determines the quality of the relationship we’re looking for and hence the quality of our partner. For example, a person with low self-esteem will have low CL and therefore may ‘settle’ for relationships which yield less profit.
Explain another way in which profit is measured in a romantic relationship (CLalt)
The alternative comparison level refers to individuals considering to end a relationship if they judge an alternative one to be more profitable than their current. However,
this is a sign of an unstable relationship, and a couple who are satisfied will not be looking for alternatives.
Explain what is meant by ‘equity’ in relation to romantic relationships
The perception that partners have about whether the distribution of rewards and costs in the relationships is fair.
Outline the equity theory of romantic relationships
According to the equity theory, relationships are successful if each partner bears the same amount of profit and costs.
When there’s a lack of equity, then one partner underbenefits the other overbenefits:
- The UNDERBNEFITED partner will likely feel the greatest dissatisfaction, in the form of anger, hostility, resentment, and humiliation.
- The OVERBENEFITED partner will likely feel guilt, discomfort and shame.
This therefore leads to the ratio and distribution of equity to be unbalanced, causing dissatisfaction in the relationship.
The greater the perceived inequality, the greater the dissatisfaction - equity theory predicts a strong correlation between the two.
Define the equity theory
An economic theory developed in response to a significant criticism of the SET, as it fails to take into account the need most people have for balance rather than profit in a relationship.
Outline a weakness of the equity theory
(cultural limitations)
POINT - The equity theory raises questions of cross-culture validity.
EVIDENCE - Psychologists found different cultures had different attitudes towards the importance of equity in relationships.
EXPLAIN - Couples from an individualist culture (US) considered their relationships to be most satisfying when the relationship was equitable, whereas couples in a collectivist culture (Jamaica) were most satisfied when they were over benefitting. This was true of both men and women, so cannot be explained by gender differences.
LINK - This shows that more research needs to be carried out to explain the cultural differences that the theory cannot account for.
Outline another weakness of equity theory
(individual differences)
POINT - Another limitation is that not all partners in romantic relationships are concerned about achieving equity.
EXPLAIN - Psychologists describe some partners as benevolents, who are prepared to under benefit in a relationship. Others are entitleds who believe they deserve to over benefit and accept it without feeling distressed or guilty, perhaps due to having a big ego.
EVIDENCE - This shows that desire for equity varies from one individual to another, and isn’t a universal feature of romantic relationships, as some partners are less sensitive to equity than others.
LINK - Therefore this weakens the theory as it provides examples of people who are happy being in inequitable relationships.
Outline a strength of the equity theory (married couples)
POINT - Evidence from studies of real-world relationships that confirm equity theory as a more valid explanation than SET.
EVIDENCE - Psychologists carried out a survey of 118 newly-weds, measuring equity with two self-report scales. The couples had been together for more than 2 years. They found that those who considered their relationship equitable were more satisfied as opposed to those who felt over benefited or under benefited.
EXPLAIN - This study confirms that equity is a major concern of satisfaction in romantic relationships, a central prediction of the theory.
COUNTER - However, other psychologists did not find any differences in perceived equity in relationships that ended or continued, nor did they find that equity increased overtime. Instead, they found that other variables, like self-disclosure, impacted their relationship more.
LINK - This undermines the validity of the theory because inequity doesn’t predict dissatisfaction as suggested.
Outline a strength of the halo effect (election)
POINT - Evidence that physical attractiveness is associated with a halo effect.
EVIDENCE - Psychologists looked at American election survey data and found that people rated physically attractive people as more knowledgeable and more persuasive.
EXPLAIN - The halo effect was so powerful that it persisted even when participants knew that these ‘knowledgeable’ people had no particular expertise.
LINK - This means that that the theory has real-life application. However, it poses implications for the political process, as it suggests people in positions of power have such privileges just because of their looks.
State the 4 stages through which relationships develop according to the SET
1) Sampling
2) Bargaining
3) Commitment
4) Institutionalisation
Explain the sampling stage according to the SET
We explore the profits and costs of social exchange by experimenting with them in our own relationships, or by observing others.
Explain the bargaining stage according to the SET
The relationship is tested out and the partners negotiate profits and rewards, identifying what is most profitable and to see if the relationship is worth pursuing further.
Explain the commitment stage according to the SET
As time goes on and both become more committed, the rewards become greater and the costs lesson as the person becomes more predictable.
