Reformation

Question 1

Protestant

Answer 1

word arose as an incident in struggle denoting Lutherans who “protested” action of diet of empire in 1529. Gradually came to be used by groups of anti-Roman reformers. By 1560s reality was a protestant N. Euro, cath. S. Euro- but fought for almost 100 yrs. more to affirm this. Frontier lasts.

Question 2

“Justification by faith”

Answer 2

ML determined from Romans 1:17 - “the just shall live by faith” gave him new sense of peace since been obsessed with achieving salvation and not feeling secure in traditional route i.e. prayer, alms, sacrament and holy living. This would become one of basic tenets of Lutheranism.

Question 3

Indulgences

Answer 3

Jesus’ and saints’ merits built up and in care of church which could sell a portion of them to help relieve souls from purgatory. Sold by R. C. Ch. - especially when having building drive. People bought them for forgiveness of their sins or those of deceased relatives. ML opposed these –> 95 theses.

Question 4

Ninety-Five Theses

Answer 4

Martin Luther writes these to oppose selling of indulgences by Tetzel. Gives reasons why they are not justified. Supposedly nails to door of castle church in Wittenburg where he is professor of theology. This action cited as start of Protestant Reformation-1517. Expressed that forgiveness is by God- not dependent on priest’s absolution after sacrament of penance. ML appeals to Leo X to end indulgences. In arguing his case against Johann Eck at Leipzig Debate, ML says neither pope nor council can define true Christian belief. Bible is source and man must make own interpretations per conscience.

Question 5

Leipzig Debate

Answer 5

ML debates with papal representative and famous theologian, Johann Eck, at University of Leipzig. ML, in attacking the doctrine of indulgences, challenges the Pope’s supremacy. Eck accuses him of being another Huss. ML unable to deny this.

Question 6

Johann Eck

Answer 6

Catholic theologian with whom ML debated at Leipzig in 1519.

Question 7

An Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation

Answer 7

Pubd. in 1520 by ML- a pamphlet which was a patriotic appeal to his fellow Germans to reject the foreign pope’s authority. Gave new significance to lay leaders- on par with clergy in leadership of church. Stressed need for reform.

Question 8

The Babylonian Captivity

Answer 8

Most radical of ML’s pamphlets published in 1520. Attacked the system of seven sacraments that was basis of the RC Church’s authority, on the ground that only two are mentioned in scripture. Taught that only Baptism and Communion should be observed in sacramental way.

Question 9

The Liberty of the Christian Man

Answer 9

Published by ML in 1520 and explaining his doctrine of faith and justification by stressing that, although he did not reject good works, only the faith of the individual believer could bring salvation from an all powerful, just, and merciful God. Indulgences were certainly not sufficient.

Question 10

transubstantiation

Answer 10

Doctrine dating from 1200s that priest had power to change bread and wine into body and blood of Christ. ML repudiated this yet, somehow said God mysteriously still present or consubstantiation. (Calvinists would say communion only symbolic/commemorative act)

Question 11

Peasant’s Revolt

Answer 11

1524 in upheaval of times, peasants revolted. Aims social and economic against manorial overlords. ML sided with princes of day. Owed much to them. Peasants turned to anabaptism, felt ML betrayed them. ML shocked by their behavior and Lutheranism became more conservative and submissive to state. ML advised princes to suppress harshly the revolt-75,000 peasants killed.

Question 12

Anabaptists

Answer 12

Leaders of Peasant Revolt acquired religious followings- variety of beliefs including that infant baptism was wrong. Number of obscure zealots. More moderate ones in time give rise to Mennonites and Amish sects-many of which would end up in America and Canada. The Peasant Revolt and activities led ML towards more conservative approach. They represented unrest in lower classes. For ML Reformation was a religious revolution- NOT social/economic one.

Question 13

Augsburg Confession

Answer 13

Codification in 1530 of Luther’s doctrines as established since time of Diet of Worms and subsequent confinement at Wartburg, 1521-22. Included priesthood of all believers, two sacraments, authority of the bible, justification by faith alone, end to monasticism and celibacy, consubstantiation. Luther’s friend, Philip Melancthon, worked on this codification with him.

Question 14

Philip Melancthon

Answer 14

Melancthon also a big supporter/promoter of education. Literacy very important to individual interpretation of Bible.

Question 15

Schmalkaldic War

Answer 15

1531 following Diet of Augsburg at which ML had laid out this theology before Charles V and been told unacceptable. German Lutheran Princes established. Schmalkaldic League vs. Catholic Hapsburgs. From 1546-1555 Schmalkald War- Civil/Religious war.

Question 16

Peace of Augsburg

Answer 16

1555 compromise of Schmalk War. Gave each German Prince right to determine religion of his state- RC/Lutheran. Divided Germany fairly equally: N & E-> Lutheran; S & Rhine > Roman Catholic. Therefore, really a victory for Protestants. Christendom now being split up. Charles V agreed to this because under pressure from France in west and Turks in east.

Question 17

cuis regio eius religio

Answer 17

Latin for “Whose the region, his the religion.” Principle that Peace of Augsburg based on.

Question 18

Ecclesiastical Reservation

Answer 18

part of P of A. Any Catholic who turned Lutheran would move away and could not take land and peasants with him. This clause often disregarded. RC obviously trying to hold on to what they had.

Question 19

Ulrich Zwingli

Answer 19

1484-1531. Swiss humanist, priest and disciple of Erasmus. Founded the reform church in Switzerland. Much like Luther’s but differed over nature of Communion. Believed it to be purely a symbolic act-commemorating the last supper and Christ’s sacrifice for mankind. Luther, on the other hand, believed there was a spiritual presence in the bread and wine at the time of communion. This difference became apparent at the time of the Marburg Colloquy in 1529. Zwingli tried to simplify the Christian belief and practice even more than Luther.

Question 20

Marburg Colloquy

Answer 20

1529. Called by Philip of Hesse in attempt to bring German and Swiss reformers, Luther and Zwingli.

Question 21

Institutes of the Christian Religion

Answer 21

Pubd. in 1536 by John Calvin. Written in Latin and had universal appeal. Single MOST IMPORTANT RELIGIOUS WORK of the 16th century. Addressed to world and included his theory of predestination. Detailed foundation of Calvinism. Tied together many ideas of reformation.

Question 22

John Calvin

Answer 22

French humanist with law background. Influence by ML. Exiled from France and established in Geneva the Calvinist Church. From Calvinism would spring Puritan Church, Dutch Reform Church, Swiss Reform Church, Huguenot Church and others. Calvinism would become influential in spreading Protestantism further even than Lutheranism. Some even theorize that Calvinism would have an indirect effect in promoting both capitalism and democracy.

Question 23

Michael Servetus

Answer 23

Spanish refugee. Significant because under Calvin’s strict theocracy he established in Geneva, persecution of dissenters every bit as intense as Catholic inquisition.

Question 24

Predestination

Answer 24

Doctrine espoused by Calvin in Institutes of Christian Religion- salvation by election. Based on contrast between overwhelming power and majesty of God and insignificance and depravity of man. Notion that in beginning God had planned universe- from beginning to end. Already determined who were the elect and who were the damned. Elect had faith and lived according to Christian moral values.

Question 25

Henry VIII

Answer 25

1509-1547 2nd son of HVII succeeded to throne because of death of Arthur. Defender of Faith. Desire for divorce from Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn—> problems with RC Church. Clement VII would not grant divorce because would be reversing decision of former pope and therefore admitting fallibility of a pope and also C of A was aunt of Charles V who was dominating Italy at the time. 1529 HVIII dismissed Lord Chancellor Wolsey and replaced him with friend Thomas More. Made CRANMER archbishop- he granted him an annulment and suggested separation of England from papal authority. Fate of HVIII wives: C of A Divorced (daughter Mary); Ann Boleyn beheaded (daughter Elizabeth); Jane Seymour died (son Edward VI); Anne of Cleves divorced; Katherine Howard beheaded; Catherine Parr survived.

Question 26

Act of Supremacy

Answer 26

1534 Parliament passed.- declared King rather than pope as head of the English Church. While papacy rejected, practices fundamentally Catholic in doctrine and practice. Still rejected Protestants. When Thomas More would not accept VIII as head of church, King had More executed.

Question 27

Anglican Church

Answer 27

King kept a lot of Catholic features in church. But could not please all parties and definition of English church uncertain. Under Ed. VI and influence of CRANMER it became more Protestant but under Mary there was an attempt to bring back RC. Failed and E I seeks via media or middle way. She keeps a lot of Catholic elements in services to satisfy Catholics but allows priests to marry to satisfy Protestants. Prayer book very “loose/fluid” to allow different worshippers or congregations to pick and choose. England becomes more Protestant under E I. closer to Geneva than Rome. Structure and organization - medieval. Those of Calvinist persuasion would find it too catholic-like.

Question 28

Thirty-Nine Articles

Answer 28

1563 under E I bishops and parliament defined creed of Angl. Church. Closer to Geneva than Rome but broad and ambiguous enough to accommodate many shades. Opposition from RC Duke of Norfolk and Mary Queen of Scots as well as Philip II of Spain but E I gets support of England and by time of her death, England, is definitely a Protestant nation.

Question 29

“Episcopal” Movement

Answer 29

at Council of Trent- 1545-1563. Poor attendance. Raised old conciliar movement issue. If councils from all over Catholic world assembled- would they have more authority than pope? Popes resisted idea of conciliar movement. Indeed, after Trent no councils met again until Vatican Council of 1870. Cardinal legates appointed by pope worked vs. episcopal movement.

Question 30

Justification By Works of Faith

Answer 30

Council of Trent did make this much of a compromise. Confirmed importance of faith but still kept “works.” Restated many of its established doctrines - 7 sacraments, Priesthood, confession, transubstantiation. Rejected Bible supremacy. Scripture and tradition on equal footing.

Question 31

Paul III

Answer 31

1534-9. Roman aristocrat, humanist and astrologer. First of reforming popes. Appointed several reform-minded cardinals. Believed in Papal primacy but took office v. seriously - moral and religious force. Authorized Ursuline order of nuns- girls education and Jesuits.
St. Vincent de Paul Catholic missionary among poor in Paris, 1500s. Significant as an example of RC Missionary spirit. More so than among Protestants. Part of big RC drive to reconvert Protestants.

Question 32

St. Ignatius Loyola

Answer 32

Religious experience in 1521. Became soldier of church. Established Society of Jesus/Jesuits. Authorized by Paul III in 1540- active in world/politics/colonies etc. rather than cloistered. Spiritual Exercises outline rigorous spiritual training of members. Role in education. Pro Renaissance and Humanist education. Schools for boys. Strict but included deportment, dancing etc. Organized on almost military lines. Rigid rules of command. As international missionary force was effective in gaining new converts and reconverts.

Question 33

“ultramontanism”

Answer 33

High papalism of Jesuits- devotion to pope and church. At C of T upheld the interests of pope over national bishops. This aspect of Jesuits made them as obnoxious to Catholics as to Protestants.

Question 34

Index of Prohibited Books

Answer 34

Authorized by Holy Office of Roman Inquisition. List of books prohibited to Catholics.

Question 35

Vulgate

Answer 35

translation of Bible into Latin made by St. Jerome in 4th century. Was declared by C of T to be only version on which teaching could be based.

Question 36

Pluralism

Answer 36

pluralities- church abuse whereby one man held several different church offices. Many of which he could not possibly attend to. C of T tried to suppress this abuse along with absenteeism, indulgences, worldly behavior, etc. Significant attempt to reform the abuses that had given such fuel to the Protestant movement.

Question 37

Society of Jesus

Answer 37

Jesuits established by Loyola

Question 38

Spiritual Exercises

Answer 38

Written by Loyola. Handbook for Jesuits. These were a series of exercises to be done by novitiates on a four week retreat- helped them direct their will to a new spiritual piety.

Question 39

Spanish Inquisition

Answer 39

established under Ferdinand and Isabella in 1480 to root out Moslems and Jews. Was a religious tribunal. Used very brutal methods. Aim to achieve religious conformity. Ferdinand used it for political purposes also. helped ensure reconquista and expulsion of Jews. Those who converted and stayed were still often subjected to it. Later used in countries ruled by Spain to fight Protestantism. Ex. Netherlands where Calvinism active

Question 40

Roman Inquisition

Answer 40

Papal Inquisition. Established in Rome 1542 under permanent committee of cardinals called Holy Office. Goal to fight Protestant/heresy. Both Spain and Roman Inqu. employed: torture, secret witnesses, heresy and rumor as evidence- all to get conviction. Most severe penalty was burning at stake. Sp Inqu. more severe. There was national resistance of Catholic countries outside Italy to the R. I. and no form of Inqu. ever allowed in Fr. But both Inquisitions did help stop spread of Prot. in Sp. and Italy. Johann Eck Catholic theologian with whom ML debated at Leipzig in 1519.