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Reductionism vs Holism Flashcards

1
Q

Define ‘reductionism’.

A

Based on the scientific assumption of parsimony in which a complex phenomena can be explained by studying specific parts.

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2
Q

Give an example of reductionism in psychology.

A

Using memory recall of a crime to represent accuracy of memory as a whole.

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3
Q

Define ‘holism’.

A

Studying the whole of something due to the specific parts not being enough of an explanation.

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4
Q

Give an example of holism in psychology.

A

Case studies of criminals to understand why they offended.

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5
Q

How does reductionism study behaviour?

A

Breaking down complex phenomena into simpler components to measure for scientific testing.

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6
Q

How does holism study behaviour?

A

Observing and studying the complex phenomena as a whole without breaking it down to simplify it.

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7
Q

Identify 3 areas of Cognitive Psychology that are considered reductionist.

A

1) Memory models
2) Studies on memory
3) Brain scanning

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8
Q

Describe how memory models in Cognitive Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • MSM reduces memory into 3 stores: sensory store, STM, and LTM
  • WMM reduces STM into 4 separate stores: central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer
  • Tulving’s theory separates the types of memories into 2: semantic, episodic
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9
Q

Describe how lab experiments in Cognitive Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • They operationalise memory into variables of recalling word lists (e.g. Baddeley 1966)
  • They operationalise memory into variables of recalling digits in order (e.g. Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil 2012)
  • Measuring memory is often quantitative (e.g. number of words recalled correctly)
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10
Q

Describe how brain scanning in Cognitive Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • It reduces memory down to the activity of specific areas of the brain
  • It ignores how areas of the brain interacts with the area being studied
  • Doesn’t measure brain activity as a whole
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11
Q

Identify 2 areas of Cognitive Psychology that are considered holistic.

A

1) Schemas

2) Case studies

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12
Q

Describe how schemas in Cognitive Psychology are considered holistic.

A
  • Bartlett’s theory looked at how are experiences (schemas) shape our memory
  • He does this through looking at memory as a whole in how the schema changes it instead of breaking it down
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13
Q

Describe how case studies in Cognitive Psychology are considered holistic.

A
  • Case studies view the individual’s memory as a whole
  • Research is based on experiences in their life instead of one specific factor
  • Uses many different types of methods to assess providing both quantitative and qualitative data
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14
Q

Evaluate the reductionism and holism of Baddeley (1966).

A

Reductionist

  • Operationalised memory into a list of 10 words that were semantically and acoustically similar and dissimilar
  • The number of words recalled indicated how good memory was
  • The number of acoustic and semantic words recalled in different trials indicated the encoding of the STM and LTM
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15
Q

Identify 4 areas of Social Psychology that are considered reductionist.

A

1) Studies on obedience
2) Theories of obedience
3) Studies on prejudice
4) Theories of prejudice

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16
Q

Describe how studies on obedience in Social Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • Milgram (1963) operationalised obedience as a voltage for giving people electric shocks that would increase in power
  • Milgram’s variations that tested situational factors individually such as a run down office block, the number of people conforming, etc
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17
Q

Describe how theories of obedience in Social Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • Agency Theory reduces obedience down to being in the agentic state as a result of obeying authority
  • Social Impact Theory reduces factors affecting obedience down to 3 things: number, proximity, and power
  • Authoritarianism reduces obedience down to having a specific personality involved with certain traits: hostility towards minority groups and obsession with ranks
  • Locus of control reduces obedience down to having a personality which makes you more likely to obey being an external locus of control
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18
Q

Describe how studies on prejudice in Social Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • Sherif (1954) operationalised prejudice as attitudes towards an out-group being hostile
  • Sherif (1954) also reduced the conditions for prejudice to arise being down to competition for resources
  • Reicher and Haslam (2006) reduced conditions for prejudice down to the inequality of power between two groups
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19
Q

Describe how theories of prejudice in Social Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • Realistic Conflict Theory reduces the conditions for prejudice down to competition for resources and also reduces the solution to superordinate goals
  • Social Identity Theory reduces the rise of prejudice down to 3 stages: social categorisation, social identification, social comparison
    Social Identity Theory also reduces reason for identifying with a group down to sharing characteristics
  • Contact Hypothesis reduces the solution for prejudice down to increasing contact between two groups
  • Authoritarianism reduces the reason for prejudice down to having a specific personality involved with certain traits: hostility towards minority groups and obsession with ranks
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20
Q

Evaluate the reductionism and holism of Sherif (1954).

A

Reductionist

  • Reduced reason for prejudice as competition
  • Operationalised prejudice as hostility towards out-groups with friendship levels
  • Reduced the hostility down to verbal and physical aggression
  • Only considered situational factors affecting obedience
  • Reduced solution to complexity of prejudice down to superordinate goals
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21
Q

Identify 2 areas of Biological Psychology that are considered reductionist.

A

1) Theories of aggression

2) Brain scanning

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22
Q

Describe how theories of aggression in Biological Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • Evolution reduces aggression down to biological causes of having a gene that aided survival which is innate
  • Brain structure reduces aggression down to abnormality in the brain causes by damage to certain places such as the prefrontal cortex which is responsible for self-control and so someone is more likely to be impulsive if its damaged
  • Neurotransmitters reduce aggression down to an imbalance of dopamine and serotonin in which increased dopamine and low levels of serotonin causes aggression
  • Hormones reduce aggression down to an imbalance of testosterone and cortisol in which higher levels of testosterone causes aggression with cortisol being responsible for regulation of stress
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23
Q

Describe how brain scanning in Biological Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • It reduces aggression to certain areas of the brain
  • Scanning only focuses on activity in certain areas of the brain and doesn’t account for how different areas interact
  • The research into Phineas Gage’s behaviour focused on the prefrontal cortex only
24
Q

Identify 2 areas of Biological Psychology that are considered holistic.

A

1) Evolution as an explanation for aggression

2) Case studies

25
Q

Describe how evolution as an explanation for aggression in Biological Psychology are considered holistic.

A
  • It looks at the change in environment and how that can affect natural selection and genes that are passed on
  • This creates a more holistic view of aggression as focuses on the environment as well as biology
26
Q

Describe how case studies in Biological Psychology are considered holistic.

A
  • Studies like Phineas Gage provide detail on many elements of what caused aggression
  • This focuses on a more holistic approach of explaining the behaviour as a whole
27
Q

Evaluate the reductionism and holism of Raine (1997).

A

Reductionist

  • Used a PET scan to determine whether brains of murderers pleading NGRI were different to the brains of non-murderers which only measures glucose uptake and processing at a particular time
  • Only focused on differences in certain parts of the brain (e.g. amygdala, parietal lobes) as an explanation for committing murder
  • Reduced violent behaviour down to brain activity when performing a 32 min CPT that involved spotting targets
  • Overlooks social factors
28
Q

Identify 3 areas of Learning Psychology that are considered reductionist.

A

1) Theories of learning
2) Studies on learning
3) Treatments for phobias

29
Q

Describe how theories of learning in Learning Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • Classical Conditioning reduces learning behaviours down to association ignoring biological factors that may affect susceptibility to conditioning
  • Operant Conditioning reduces learning behaviours down to reinforcements from the environment
  • Social Learning Theory reduces learning behaviour down to the observation of the behaviour being carried out by someone else
30
Q

Describe how studies on learning in Learning Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • Pavlov (1927) reduced behaviour to reflexes of salivation to demonstrate something can be condition
  • Bandura (1961) reduced learning aggression down to the observation of an adult being physically aggressive towards a bobo doll and seeing if they reproduce the same behaviours
31
Q

Describe how treatments for phobias in Learning Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • Systematic Desensitisation and Flooding both reduce the treatment for a phobia down to associating it with something good
  • They ignore the biological role in phobias
32
Q

Identify an area of Learning Psychology that are considered holistic.

A

Studies on learning.

33
Q

Describe how studies on learning in Learning Psychology are considered holistic.

A

Cooke and Mineka (1989) investigated the development of a phobia through monkeys observing other monkeys getting scared at the sight of a snake and crocodile which can involve biological factors of evolution causing them to fear predators.

34
Q

Evaluate the reductionism and holism of Watson and Rayner (1920).

A

Reductionist

  • Broke behaviour down to stimulus response actions due to using classical conditioning
  • Operationalised fear as crying and moving away from an object
  • Reduced the learning of a phobia down to hearing a loud bang causing Albert to be scared when a rat is around
35
Q

Identify 3 areas of Criminal Psychology that are considered reductionist.

A

1) Lab and field experiments
2) Explanations for criminality
3) Biological treatments for criminality

36
Q

Describe how lab and field experiments in Criminal Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • Memory is operationalised as how many things can be accurately recalled
  • Bias in jury decision making is reduced to factors such as: pre-court publicity, attractiveness, etc
  • Causes of memory impairment in EWT are down to stress arousal and attention
  • Loftus and Palmer (1974) operationalised whether leading questions affect memory as using a verb to suggest the speed of the car
37
Q

Describe how explanations for criminality in Criminal Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • Biological ones reduce the reason down to biology
  • Brain injury reduces criminal behaviour to abnormalities in specific areas of the brain (e.g. prefrontal cortex causing impulsivity)
  • XYY syndrome reduces criminality down to having two Y chromosomes that cause lower intelligence
  • Social Learning Theory reduces criminal behaviour down to observing others commit crimes
  • Labelling and SFP reduces criminality down to receiving a label which causes others to treat them differently
38
Q

Describe how biological treatments for criminality in Criminal Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • Reduces criminality down to biological reasons

- Treats criminality with certain types of medication that reduces testosterone levels

39
Q

Identify 3 areas of Criminal Psychology that are considered holistic.

A

1) Environmental treatments for criminality
2) Case studies
3) Psychological case formulation

40
Q

Describe how environmental treatments for criminality in Criminal Psychology are considered holistic.

A
  • Anger management is based on CBT principles which combines cognitive and behavioural psychology
  • This looks at two different types of approaches of biological ad environmental and combines them to form a more holistic treatment
41
Q

Describe how case studies in Criminal Psychology are considered holistic.

A
  • Case studies view the offender as a whole
  • Research looks at many different reasons for offending with many different methods focused on both biological and social factors
  • It also looks at predictions for future offenders based on what they have found
42
Q

Describe how psychological case formulation in Criminal Psychology are considered holistic.

A
  • The assessment looks at the offender as a whole and why they committed the crime
  • This is then used to provide a holistic reason with many different factors as to why the criminal offended
43
Q

Evaluate the reductionism and holism of Loftus and Palmer (1974).

A

Reductionist

  • Operationalised the phenomenon of EWT accuracy with leading questions
  • The leading questions were operationalised as a change in verb to suggest a certain speed of a car
  • Reduced the accuracy to correct/incorrect answer to the critical question in second experiment of whether or not there was any glass
44
Q

Identify 3 areas of Clinical Psychology that are considered reductionist.

A

1) Diagnosis of mental disorders
2) Explanations for mental disorders
3) Treatments for mental disorders

45
Q

Describe how diagnosis of mental disorders in Clinical Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • Diagnosis of mental disorders isolates a complex phenomenon of a mental disorder down to specific symptoms
  • Manuals such as the ICD and DSM use specific quantifiers for disorders
46
Q

Describe how explanations of mental disorders in Clinical Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • Biological explanation for SZ reduces it down to the abnormal activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine and abnormalities in brain structure such as enlarged ventricles)
  • Social explanation for SZ reduces it down to stress caused from environmental factors like: social adversity, lower social class, and immigration
  • Biological explanation for AN reduces it down to having a certain gene (e.g. EPHX2) which causes the development of the disorder
  • Social explanation for AN reduces it down to the medias influence of skinny models and cultural norms of thinness being desirable
47
Q

Describe how treatments of mental disorders in Clinical Psychology are considered reductionist.

A
  • Drug treatment for SZ and AN reduce the cause to biological factors and so the treatment to biological
  • SZ have drug treatment of antipsychotics for controlling excess dopamine
  • AN have drug treatment of SSRIs for serotonin and antipsychotics for dopamine
  • Token economy for AN reduces the treatment down to receiving rewards for the desired behaviour of gaining weight
48
Q

Identify 4 areas of Clinical Psychology that are considered holistic.

A

1) Twin studies
2) Explanations for mental disorders
3) Environmental treatments for mental disorders
4) Case studies

49
Q

Describe how twin studies in Clinical Psychology are considered holistic.

A
  • It looks at genetics and the environment of the twins in how they differ with certain environmental factors triggering certain genes
  • This is more holistic as there is never a 100% concordance rate showing that there must be an element of both biological and social
50
Q

Describe how explanations for mental disorders in Clinical Psychology are considered holistic.

A
  • Diathesis-stress model is more holistic as it describes that biological and environmental factors can cause the development of a disorder
  • If someone has the biological factor of a certain gene this can get triggered by environmental factors such as stress to cause the development of a disorder (e.g. SZ)
51
Q

Describe how environmental treatments for mental disorders in Clinical Psychology are considered holistic.

A
  • ACT as a treatment for SZ is more holistic due to not being sufficient enough on its own so is often paired with drug treatment
  • It assess the individual and how environmental factors affect their disorder and helps them to function better
  • This being combined with drug therapy tackles both factors
52
Q

Describe how case studies in Clinical Psychology are considered holistic.

A
  • It looks at a patient with a disorder as a whole
  • It considers many reasons for the development of the disorder such as biological and social and looks at the effects of different treatments
  • Luk and Aghoha (2014) is an example and it used many methods to determine the cause of a 14 yr old girl’s anorexia with many methods of treating it
53
Q

Evaluate the reductionism and holism of Rosenhan (1973).

A

Reductionist

  • Operationalised the reliability and validity of diagnosis using the DSM with whether the psuedopatients all received the same diagnosis
  • Operationalised the symptoms as hearing the word “thud”
  • Operationalised staff treatment of patients as how many times they talked to them or made eye contact, etc
  • Staff reduced behaviour of patients to writing things down and being too polite
54
Q

Which 2 areas of psychology are most reductionist?

A

1) Social

2) Learning

55
Q

Which 2 areas of psychology are most holistic?

A

1) Clinical

2) Criminal

56
Q

What are 5 pros of reductionism?

A

1) High reliability due to reducing a complex phenomena to simpler components makes it easier to test for consistency and compare
2) High validity due to the control over variables allowing cause and effect relationship
3) The scientific status of reductionism means data is more credible
4) It is appropriate for certain levels of explanation such as some mental disorders being explain at neurological levels allowing for more understanding for treatment
5) Since all animals are made of atoms, our behaviour must be explainable at this level and so can be reduced to a physical level

57
Q

What are 5 cons of reductionism?

A

1) Low ecological validity as reduces variables tested in a lab would not represent the whole in real life
2) Low validity due to concepts often being abstract which means that operationisalisation may be inadequate or incorrect at representing the whole
3) Inappropriate for psychology and its focus on explaining human behaviour as it reduces it into simpler parts limits understanding due to ignoring complexity
4) Humanists argue reductionism dehumanises psychological perspectives in attempts to simplify it for testing

issues and debates (3 decks)

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