Red and rosé winemaking

Question 1

What processes differentiate the making of red wine from that of white ?

Answer 1

1. The fermentation of grapes on their skins in order to extract both colour and tannin makes the making of red wine differ.
2. The pressing of the grapes takes place after fermentation (and not before)
3. MLF is standard, rather than a stylistic choice.
4. Cap management is required in order to extract tannins, colour and flavour is crucial when making red wines only. Therefore red wines are often fermented in large open-topped vessels.
5. Fermentation in oak barrels is almost impossible, as it does not ensure sufficient contact between skins and juice.

Question 2

Describe the process of cold maceration of blue grapes and why a winemaker would chose to let wine go through this process.

Answer 2

• crushed grapes macerate at low temperatures for a period of time before fermentation is started
• the purpose is to extract colour and flavour compounds
• as tannins are more soluble in alcoholic solutions, they will therefore not be extracted so readily at this point

Question 3

At what temperature range is red wine normally fermented ?

Answer 3

20-32 degrees Celsius

Question 4

At what temperature is the yeast killed ?

Answer 4

35 degrees Celsius

Question 5

Why would a winemaker chose to lower temperature by the end of fermentation of crushed blue grapes ?

Answer 5

tannins become more soluble when alcohol levels rise, but by lowering the temperature towards the end of the fermentation, the winemaker can reduce their extraction.

Question 6

What is the cap ?

Answer 6

A fermenting red wine will automatically form a thick mass of pulp and skins on the surface, the cap.

Question 7

If the cap is left on the surface of the fermenting red wine, what are the consequences ?

Answer 7

Little colour, flavour or tannin is extracted.

The cap will also retain heat (and speed up the fermentation.)

Question 8

Give 4 examples of cap management techniques

Answer 8

1. Punching down
2. Pumping over
3. Rack and return
4. Rotary fermenters

Question 9

What is punching down ?

Answer 9

A technique used to manage the cap, in order to disperse the thick mass of pulp and skins on the surface, so that colour, flavour and tannins are extracted.

Traditionally it was made by punching down the cap by hand with paddles on the end of sticks. (=>Danger of carbon dioxide intoxication)

Today mechanical paddles are in use.

Effective to extract colour and tannin

(=> danger of overworking the cap, particularly at the end of fermentation, when tannins are more easily extracted).

Question 10

What is rack and return ?

Answer 10

1. The fermenting juice is drained from the fermening vessel into another vessel, leaving the cap behind.
2. The juice is then pumped back over the cap.

This is very extractive, so is usually only done once or twice during fermentation.

Like pumping over, it is a very efficient way to dissipate heat.

Question 11

What makes the use of rotary fermenters different from the methods of punching down, rack and return and pumping over ?

Answer 11

1. The fermentation usually takes place in rotating horizontal tanks.
2. Therefore the juice is in constant contact with the skins.

Question 12

What is pumping over ?

Answer 12

1. The ferming juice is drawn from the bottom of the vat and pumped up to the top, wetting the cap.
2. This dissipates the heat
3. and oxygenates the juice

Question 14

What is the difference between free run juice, free run wine, press juice and press wine ?

Answer 14

Free run juice is the juice of crushed fresh grapes, created when producing white wine.

Press juice is the juice made from the pressing of the remaining green grape mass after the free juice has been separated, when producing white wine.

Free run wine is the wine drawn off the skins of blue grapes after maceration, a part of red winemaking.

Press wine is the wine deriving from pressing the mass remaining after separating the free run wine, a part of red winemaking.

Question 15

Why would a winemaker chose fermenting whole bunches and what should he/she be careful of ?

Answer 15

1. Normally crushed grapes are fermented
2. A winemaker may chose that a fraction or the totality of the grapes are whole bunches, in order to give the wine distinctive fruity aromas.
3. Care must be taken to ensure that the stems are fully ripe
4. If not, the tannins in the stems can add an undesirable bitter taste.

Question 16

Describe the process of whole bunch fermentation:

Answer 16

1. The objective of the technique is to create an oxygen-free environment for the uncrushed fruit.
2. The consequence is, that the berries create some alcohol inside their cells, without the involvement of yeast: intracellular fermentation.
3. A range of distinctive fruity aromas are created inside the berry as a consequence, giving the wine unique qualities.

Question 17

What is carbonic maceration ?

Answer 17

1. Only whole uncrushed bunches into vats
2. Vats filled with CO2 to remove all oxygen
3. => intracellular fermentation starts
4. At 2 % alcohol ABV, grape skins start to split and grapes release their juice
5. Normally, grapes are then pressed, to separate skins from juice.
6. Yeast then complete the fermentation off the skins.
7. This method extracts colour but very little tannin=> soft, fruity wines, with distinctive notes of kirsch, banana, bubble gum and cinnamon-like spice.

Question 18

What is semi-carbonic maceration ?

Answer 18

1. Similar to carbonic maceration, but vat not filled with C02
2. Vats filled with whole bunches
3. Weight of grapes at the top on bunches at the bottom crush them and they release some juice.
4. Ambient yeast start to ferment juice.
5. Fermentation => CO2 which fills the vat and the remaining intact berries undergo carbonic maceration.
6. As the intact grapes begin to split and release their juice, the grapes are pressed.
7. Yeast completes the fermentation off the skins.

Question 19

Describe the fermentation method of whole bunches with crushed fruit

Answer 19

Whole bunches and crushed fruit is fermented together.

Althought the environment is not blanketed by CO2 (:not completely free of oxygen), the crushed fruit will largely cover the bunches and keep them free of oxygen, so intracellular fermentation will take place inside their berries.

The bunches are gradually crushed as the cap is regularly pushed down.

This method is thought to give a silkier structure and bright, fresh fruity character.

Question 20

Describe the normal process of premium red winemaking from grape picking to bottling.

Answer 20

1. Grape sorting
2. Crushing
3. a Either pre-fermentation maceration
4. Alcoholic fermentation
5. b. or Post-fermentation maceration
6. Draining (free-run wine >< skins, gross lees)
7. Pressing of skins
8. Separation of skins
9. Press wine and free-run wine MLF
10. Maturation

Question 21

Describe the normal process of red winemaking from grape picking to bottling.

Answer 21

1. Crushing
2. a Either pre-fermentation maceration
3. Alcoholic fermentation
4. b. or Post-fermentation maceration
5. Draining (free-run wine >< skins, gross lees)
6. Pressing of skins
7. Separation of skins
8. Press wine and free-run wine MLF

Question 22

What are the reasons for blending when making red wine ?

Answer 22

1. Grape varieties: To enhance certain aspects, such as colour, body, tannin, acidity or flavour.
2. Different press fractions: To boost colour, flavour and tannin of the more delicate free run wine is widely used.
3. Different maturation: Complexity may be achieved by blending wines that have matured in oak vessels of different ages, sizes and toasting levels. A more subtle oak influence can also be achieved by mixing wine matured on oak with wine matured on inert vessels.

Question 23

Describe Cabernet Sauvignon

Answer 23

The grape is thick-skinned and gives wine with intense colour, flavour and tannins. It is also late ripening and in cooler regions, it can struggle to ripen fully, giving the wine astringent tannins and herbaceous flavours.

It is grown classically at Haut-Médoc, Bordeaux, where it makes long-lived wines that often display grippy tannins at youth with some cedar and blackcurrant aromas.

With age, the tannins soften and flavours become more expressive.

C.S. is often blended with Merlot, that ripens earlier, to obtain more juicy plum fruit and a smoother texture.

Question 24

Where is Cabernet Sauvignon classically found outside Europe ?

Answer 24

• generally speaking, warmer and sunnier regions, thus full-bodied wines with ripe blackcurrant and black cherry notes, and smooth tannins.

Napa Valley, California

Coonawarra and Margareth River, Australia

Hawke’s Bay, New Zealand

Stellenbosch, South Africa

Colchagua Valley, Chile

Question 25

Describe a typical premium production of Cabernet Sauvignon

Answer 25

• destemming (as stems can add herbaceous and astringent character)
• crushing
• possibly pre-fermentation maceration (the thick skin gives plenty of colour)
• fermentation at 26-30 warm enough for extraction, but cool enough to promote fresh fruit flavours.
• as high in tannin, high temperatures and cap management techniques avoided
• post-fermentation maceration may be chosen for a gentler extraction of tannin and to soften existing tannins.

Question 26

Describe Merlot

Answer 26

The other great Bordeaux grape

buds and ripens earlier than Cabernet Sauvignon, with which it is frequently blended

Dominant in Saint-Émilion and Pomerol.

Generally made in to styles, international (max fruit, sof tannins) and local (medium body and alcohol, higher acidity, red fresh fruit and vegetal, leafy aromas).

Question 27

Basically, what three methods exist to make rosé ?

Answer 27

Direct pressing (crushing and pressing, just like white wine=> delicately coloured)

Short maceration (crushing, maceration, free run juice drained off skins and fermented at cool temp like white wine)

Blending (a little red wine added to white wine, not allowed in the EU, except for rosé Champagne)

Question 28

Describe Pinot Noir

Answer 28

An early budding and ripening variety, with thin skin, best suited for cool and moderate climates, like Burgundy.

Can be made in a range of different styles, from light, red cherry notes dominated to complex and earthy with notes of spice and forest floor.

Colour and tannin may tricky to extract without overworking the fruit, thus loosing the elegance of the primary aromas.

Question 29

Where can high-quality Pinot Noir be found ?

Answer 29

Côte d’Or, Burgundy (delicate floral to spicy tannic)

Baden, Germany

Los Carneros, Sonoma, California

Martinborough, Marlborough and Central Otago, NZ

Yarra Valley, Mornington Peninsula and Tasmania, Australia

Walker Bay, South Africa

Casablanca Valley, Chile

Question 30

Describe the typical vinification of Pinot Noir

Answer 30

(-destemming)

(-crushing)

• pre-fermentation maceration (to maximise extraction of colour and flavour)/inclusion of whole bunches in the ferment (=> more red fruit and floral character) that are gradually crushed by punch down. Fermentation continues on the skins, once the grapes have been broken up.
• fermentation temperatures above 30 degrees for more colour, flavour and tannin.
• post-fermentation is NOT practised
• premium wines: 12-24 months on second or third-fill barrels and only a small proportion on new
• bottle-ageing=> flavours of forest floor and mushroom

Question 31

Describe Syrah/Shiraz

Answer 31

• Thick, darlky coloured skins
• will not ripen well in very cool climates
• can produce a range of different styles, from medium-bodied with pepper and fresh black fruit aromas to smooth full-bodied with intense very ripe black fruit flavours, deep colour and high tannins, suitable for long-term ageing

Question 32

Where is Syrah typically grown ?

Answer 32

Northern Rhône (temperature limit for Syrah), south-facing slopes like Côte Rôtie and Hermitage: fuller bodied, berry flavours, pepper, often w/ ageing: meat, leather.

Languedoc and Roussillon (blended with Grenache, Mourvèdre, Carignan and Cinsault). Riper.

Barossa Valley, Hunter Valley, Australia (hot=> soft, earthy, spicy style, concentrated black fruit).

Great Southern, Geelong, heathcote, Australier(cooler=> leaner, more peppery)

Plus Chile, South Africa, Hawke’s Bay, NZ and Washington State, USA.

Question 33

Describe Grenache

Answer 33

• late-ripening
• needs warm or hot climate
• high tolerance for drought
• sweet, thin-skinned grapes=> high alcohol, low acidity, full-bodied, soft tannins and red fruit flavours.

Question 34

Where in Spain is Garnache typically grown ?

Answer 34

In Rioja and Priorat it is important in blends. Plus Calatayud, Cariñena and Navarra.

Rioja Baja blended with Temperanillo=> G gives perfume, body and alcohol

Priorat blended with Carignan => deeply coloured, high levels tannin, fesh black fruit, toasty oak.

Question 35

Apart from Spain, where is Grenache grown ?

Answer 35

• Southern Rhône (e.g. Châteauneuf-du-Pape) blends with Syrah, Mourvèdre etc=>full-bodied, richly textured, concentrated spicy red fruit.
• Languedoc and Rousillon, blends with Syrah, Mourvèdre, Carignan and Cinsault=> spicy, perfumed, with local herbs (garrigue ?)
• highest quality outside Europa, Barossa Valley and McLaren Vale, Australia, old bush vines=> robust, ripe, intense flavours of red berried and peppery spice.

Question 36

What can production costs be divided into ?

Answer 36

Grape growing

Winemaking

Packaging

Transport, distribution, sales

Taxes

Retailers

Market forces