Red and Rose Winemaking Flashcards
Temperature control during fermentation
Red wine fermentation ranges from 20-32 degrees C, depending on the style of wine. These higher temps are necessary for color extraction, flavor, and tannin. Care must be taken that the temps do not exceed 35 degrees and kill the yeast.
Cap management techniques
Mass of pulp and skins known as the “cap”. If the cap is left to float on top of the fermenting wine, little color or tannin will be extracted from it. There are different techniques to overcome this:
Punching down: pushing down the cap with a paddle (traditional, can be dangerous) and today can be done mechanically.
Pumping over: This involves drawing off fermenting juice from the bottom of the vat and pumping over the top, wetting the cap. This is a popular technique and a good way of dissipating heat and oxygenating juice.
Rack and return: The fermenting juice is drained from the fermenting vessel into another vessel, leaving the cap behind. The juice is then pumped back over the cap. This is normally only used once or twice during a fermentation as it can be very extractive.
Rotary fermenters: Ferm takes place in rotating horizontal tanks. This keeps the juice in constant contact with the skins.
Fermentation vessels
Usually large vessels (given cap management techniques) they are open topped and can be made from oak, concrete, or stainless steel. Ferm in oak barrels is impractical for red wine as it would be impossible to maintain sufficient contact between the skins and the juice.
Post-fermentation extraction
Maceration after fermentation encourages the further extraction of tannin, which may or not be desirable. Therefore the length of time the wine stays on the skins once Ferm is complete depends on the style of wine being made.
Press wine
When maceration is finished, the free run wine is drawn off the skins and the remaining mass is pressed, creating press wine.
Whole Bunch Fermentation
Vast majority of red wines made with crushed fruit but some winemakers include whole bunches of uncrushed grapes in the fermentation; in some cases the whole bunches may make up the whole vat. If whole bunches are used, the winemaker must make sure the grape stems are fully ripe. The goal of this technique is to create an oxygen-free environment for the uncrushed fruit. This means: the berries create some alcohol in their cells, w/o the involvement of any yeast (intracellular fermentation) ; and a range of distinctive fruit aromas is created inside the berry, which gives wines unique qualities.
Carbonic maceration
Only whole, uncrushed bunches of grapes are places in vats that are then filled with CO2 to remove all the oxygen–this causes intracellular fermentation to start. Once the level of oxygen in the grape reaches 2 % the grape skins start to split and the grapes release their juice. The grapes are generally pressed at this stage to separate the juice from the skins. Yeast then complete the fermentation off the skins. Importantly this method extracts color from the grapes, but little tannin, and the resulting wines are soft, full of fruit with distinctive notes of kirsch, banana, bubble gum, and cinnamon-like spices.
Semi-carbonic maceration
Similar but slightly different to carbonic maceration. Does not involve filling the vats with CO2. The vats are filled with whole bunches, the grapes at the bottom are crushed under the weight of the grapes above and some juice is released. Ambient yeast starts to ferment the juice. This fermentation produces CO2, which fill the vat and the remaining intact berries undergo carbonic maceration. As the intact grapes begin to split and release their juice as the grapes are pressed and yeast complete the fermentation off the skins. This results in wines with fresher fruit character.
Whole bunches with crushed fruit
A further variation is to mix whole bunches with crushed grapes in the fermenting vessel at the start of fermentation. Although the whole bunches in the vat are not blanketed with co2 , they are largely submerged by the crushed grapes and kept away from oxygen, therefore intracellular fermentation takes place. The whole bunches are progressively crushed as the cap is regular pushed down. This technique is thought to give the wine a silkier texture and a brighter, fresher fruit character.
Red winemaking | high-volume inexpensive
- Wines are typically made in a fruity, low-tannin style. In order to retain primary fruit characters, the juice and wine are usually handled protectively with SO2 levels being monitored throughout the winemaking process.
- Grapes are usually destemmed and crushed upon arrival to the winery.
- Due to the warm or hot climates where these wines are typically made, tartaric acid may need to be added to raise the acidity.
- Fermentations will generally take place using commercial yeast at around 22-25 degrees C in order to maximize fruit flavors. Cap will not be heavily worked.
- Carbonic or semi-carbonic macerations can also be used–e.g. basic Beaujolais.
- These wines are typically clear and w/o sediment. Wines are stablized, fined, and sterile filtered before bottling. SO2 levels will be topped up at bottling to reduce the risk of oxidation.
Premium winemaking | Cabernet Sauvignon
Cab Sauvignon is a thick-skinned variety and has an abundance or color, flavor and tannin. It is also late ripening and in cooler regions, can struggle to ripen fully if the weather is poor which gives the wines astringent tannins and herbaceous flavors.
In the Haut-Medoc of Bordeaux Cab Sauv is the classic grape—it makes long-lived wines that often display grippy tannins in their youth, with some cedar and blackcurrant leaf aromas. With age the tannins soften and become more expressive. The wines are usually blended with a proportion of Merlot, with ripens earlier and gives juicy plum fruit flavor and a smoother texture. Within Europe Cab Sauv is generally blended with indigenous grape varieties like Sangiovese in Italy and Tempranillo in Spain.
Outside of Europe Cab Sauv is seen in both blended and varietal styles. In warm regions it attains a ripeness from both warmer temps and long hours of bright sunlight giving full-bodied wines with ripe blackcurrant and black cherry notes and smooth tannins.
At the winery Cab Sauv is destemmed and crushed. Fermentation temps range from 26-30 degrees C, warm enough for extraction and cool enough to preserve the fruit flavors. Post-fermentation maceration may be bused to encourage a more gentle extraction of tannin and to soften existing tannins.
Structure of these wines means they are well-suited to bottle aging and oak maturation. French oak is widely used, period of maturation can last from six months to 3 or 4 years. 12-18 months being typical.
On its own Can Sauv can have high tannins and a lack of body, so it is often blended with Merlot.
Rose winemaking
Can be made in one of 3 ways.
- direct pressing: black grapes are crushed and pressed like in white wine production. Extracts a little color from the skin but care is taken not to extract too much tannin. Often produces the most delicately colored rose wines.
- Short maceration: black grapes are crushed and allowed to macerate to extract flavor and color. Duration of maceration will depend on how much color and tannin the winemaker wants in the final wine. the free run juice will then be drained off the skins and fermented at cool temperatures as if it were a white wine.
- Blending: Small quantity of red wine is added to a white wine to produce a rose. Not permitted in the EU except for rose Champagne. Widely used by fruity inexpensive New World roses.
Winemaking | Merlot
Buds and ripens earlier than Cab Sauvignon; Merlot is dominant in Saint-Emilion and Pomerol. Some Merlot is made by harvesting the grapes as late as possible to generate the most intense color and concentrated blackberry and plum fruit. These wines are often matured in new oak to add toasty aromas. (this is called the international style-popular in new world, south of France and some Bordeaux estates) the other style is produced by harvesting the grapes earlier to make a wine of medium body and alcohol, but which has higher acidity and more of a fresh red fruit character, as well as some vegetal leafy aromas. This approach is rarely found outside Bordeaux. As with Cab Sauvignon, 12-18 months in oak is common.
Winemaking | Pinot Noir
Pinot Noir is early budding and early ripening variety that produces fruit with a thin skin. It is a very old variety and therefore there are many different clones available. Pinot Noir can be made in a range of styles, from light and fruity with red cherry notes, to complex and earthy with flavors of spice and forest floor. Color and tannin can be tricky to extract from the skins, therefore it is important to maximize the extraction without overworking the juice. Pinot Noir is best grown
Winemaking | Syrah
Syrah grapes are small with thick, darkly colored skins that they will not ripen in very cool climates. This grape can produce a range of styles, depending on the region grown and the winemaking techniques used. Syrah can range from medium-bodied with pepper and fresh black fruit aromas, to smooth and full-bodied with intense, very ripe black fruit flavors and hints of licorice. Syrah’s intensity of fruit flavors, together with its deep color and high tannins, makes the best examples suitable for long-term aging. Syrah is most famously grown in the Northern Rhone; the climate here is at the coolest limit for Syrah and therefore wine styles will depend on vineyard site; lesser sites will produce quite light wines with simple black fruit and herbaceous flavors and often slightly grippy tannins. South-facing slopes, such as Cote Rotie and Hermitage, can produce fuller wines with berry flavors and hints of pepper, often complemented by notes of meat and leather after aging.
In the new world, Australia has a well-established reputation for Syrah–Shiraz. Hot regions such as the Hunter and Barossa Valleys produce soft, earthy, spicy styles of Shiraz with concentrated black fruit aromas. Cooler regions such as Great Southern, Geelong, and Heathcote, produce leaner, more peppery styles. Winemaking has an important impact on the style of wine made; full-bodied, intensely ripe wines with high alcohol can be produced in warm and hot climates; they have typically been subjected to vigorous cap management to extract max color, flavor, and tannin.
