Reconstructive Memory

Question 1

Describe the concept of reconstructive memory.

Answer 1

Reconstructive memory is the theory that memory is an active process involving the reconstruction of information rather than a passive retrieval of stored data.

Question 2

How do schemas influence memory processes?

Answer 2

Schemas can influence memory processes at all stages, determining what information is remembered or forgotten even after it has been encoded and stored in long-term memory.

Question 3

Define the aim of Loftus and Palmer’s 1974 study.

Answer 3

The aim was to test the hypothesis that the language used in eyewitness testimony can alter memory.

Question 4

What was the procedure in Experiment One of Loftus and Palmer’s study?

Answer 4

Forty-five American students viewed seven files of traffic accidents and were asked to describe what happened, including estimating the speed of the cars using different verbs.

Question 5

How did the wording of questions affect participants’ speed estimates in Loftus and Palmer’s study?

Answer 5

The estimated speed was significantly affected by the verb used in the question, with stronger verbs leading to higher speed estimates.

Question 6

What were the average speed estimates based on the verb used in the study?

Answer 6

The average speed estimates were: Smashed - 40.8 mph, Collided - 39.3 mph, Bumped - 38.1 mph, Hit - 34 mph, Contacted - 31.8 mph.

Question 7

What conclusion can be drawn from the results of Loftus and Palmer’s study?

Answer 7

The results indicate that the way questions are phrased can bias eyewitness testimony and alter perceptions of events.

Question 8

Describe the procedure of Experiment Two in Loftus and Palmer’s study.

Answer 8

In Experiment Two, 150 students were shown a one-minute film of a car driving, followed by four seconds of multiple traffic accidents.

Question 9

Describe the impact of questioning technique on memory recall as suggested by the research.

Answer 9

The research suggests that memory is easily distorted by questioning technique, where information acquired after an event can merge with original memory, leading to inaccurate recall or reconstructive memory.

Question 10

How did the results differ between the ‘smashed’ and ‘hit’ groups regarding the recall of broken glass?

Answer 10

In the ‘smashed’ group, 16 participants reported seeing broken glass, while in the ‘hit’ group, only 7 reported seeing broken glass, indicating that the wording of the question influenced memory recall.

Question 11

Define reconstructive memory in the context of the study’s findings.

Answer 11

Reconstructive memory refers to the process where memories are not just retrieved but are reconstructed, often influenced by subsequent information or questioning techniques, leading to potential inaccuracies.

Question 12

What was the aim of Loftus, Miller, and Burns’ 1978 study?

Answer 12

The aim was to investigate how verbal information supplied after an event influences a witness’s visual memory for that event.

Question 13

How did the presence of consistent versus inconsistent information affect participants’ recognition of slides in the study?

Answer 13

Participants who received consistent post-event information correctly recognized the slide in 75% of cases, while those who received inconsistent information recognized it correctly in only 41% of cases.

Question 14

Explain the significance of the control group in the study’s design.

Answer 14

The control group, which was not asked any questions, serves as a baseline to compare the effects of leading questions on memory recall, highlighting the influence of post-event information.

Question 15

What conclusion can be drawn about the effect of leading questions on memory from the second experiment’s results?

Answer 15

The results suggest that leading questions not only bias responses but can actually alter the memory a participant has for the event, indicating a significant impact on memory accuracy.

Question 16

How many students were asked about the speed of the cars in the initial study?

Answer 16

100 students were asked about the speed of the cars when they hit or smashed each other.

Question 17

What percentage of participants recognized the slide correctly when given misleading information?

Answer 17

Only 41% of participants who received misleading post-event information were able to correctly recognize the slide they had actually seen.

Question 18

What was the procedure followed in Loftus, Miller, and Burns’ study?

Answer 18

Participants were shown a series of 30 color slides depicting a car-pedestrian accident and then answered questions, including one about whether another car passed the red Datsun at a stop or yield sign.

Question 19

Describe the impact of misleading post-event verbal information on memory.

Answer 19

Misleading post-event verbal information can be integrated with prior visual information, leading to reconstructive memory.

Question 20

How does the passage of time affect the influence of misleading information on visual memory?

Answer 20

The longer the time that passes from the original event, the stronger the effect of misleading information on visual memory.

Question 21

Define the aim of Loftus and Pickrell’s ‘Lost in the Mall’ study.

Answer 21

The aim was to determine if false memories of autobiographical events can be created through the power of suggestion.

Question 22

Outline the procedure used in the ‘Lost in the Mall’ study.

Answer 22

Participants’ parents or siblings were contacted to recall childhood memories, including a fabricated event of getting lost in a mall. Participants then wrote about four memories and were interviewed twice over four weeks.

Question 23

What were the results of the ‘Lost in the Mall’ study regarding false memories?

Answer 23

About 25% of participants recalled the false memory of getting lost in the mall, but they rated their confidence in this memory lower than in the real memories.

Question 24

Summarize the conclusion drawn from the ‘Lost in the Mall’ study.

Answer 24

The study concluded that some individuals can be misled into believing a false event occurred in their childhood due to suggestion, indicating that memories can be altered.

Question 25

What was the main claim of McCloskey and Zaragoza’s study regarding Loftus, Miller & Burns’ findings?

Answer 25

They claimed that the results were due to response bias, suggesting that memory flaws arose from inconsistent information in the questions.

Question 26

Describe the procedure used in McCloskey and Zaragoza’s study.

Answer 26

The study utilized a slide-recognition procedure with 79 slides depicting a maintenance man involved in various actions, with a critical slide altered to change the tool used.

Question 27

What conclusion was reached in McCloskey and Zaragoza’s study regarding misleading information?

Answer 27

When misleading information was not presented, participants performed as well as the control group, indicating that misleading information does not affect memory recall.

Question 28

Explain the purpose of meta-analysis in eyewitness memory studies.

Answer 28

Meta-analysis helps to resolve contradictions in findings from various eyewitness memory and testimony studies.

Question 29

What were the findings of the Payne, Toglia, and Anastasi study regarding recognition levels?

Answer 29

The study found that recognition levels in the misled condition were lower, indicating that misleading information negatively impacts memory recall.

Question 30

Describe the difference in recall between the experimental group and the control conditions in the study mentioned.

Answer 30

The experimental group had a recall rate of 7%, while the control conditions had a recall rate of 75.8%, indicating a small but statistically significant difference.

Question 31

Define the misinformation effect in the context of eyewitness testimony.

Answer 31

The misinformation effect refers to the phenomenon where a person’s recall of an event is altered by misleading information presented after the event.

Question 32

How do Reconstructive Memory studies limit ecological validity?

Answer 32

Reconstructive Memory studies often take place in artificial settings, which can limit their ecological validity and the generalizability of the findings to real-world situations.

Question 33

What is the significance of Yuille & Cutshall’s 1986 study on eyewitness memory?

Answer 33

Yuille & Cutshall’s study found that misleading questions had very little effect on recall, demonstrating a high level of memory accuracy among witnesses interviewed four months after a crime.

Question 34

Explain the concept of Flashbulb Memory Theory.

Answer 34

Flashbulb Memory Theory posits that memories of significant events are accompanied by strong emotional reactions, leading to vivid and detailed recollections.

Question 35

Discuss the implications of research on eyewitness testimony for legal consequences.

Answer 35

Research on eyewitness testimony has sparked significant debate regarding its reliability, which can have important legal consequences globally, affecting the outcomes of trials and justice.

Question 36

What are the trade-offs between naturalistic setting eyewitness studies and internal validity?

Answer 36

Naturalistic setting eyewitness studies have high ecological validity, meaning they reflect real-world conditions, but they often suffer from low internal validity, making it difficult to control for confounding variables.