Reasoning and Evidence Flashcards
Propositions
Statements that are true or false
Non-Propositions
Sentences that do not make a claim that can be true or false
Simple-Propositions
Propositions that have no internal logical structure, meaning they are true or false on their own
Complex-Propositions
Propositions that have internal logical structure, meaning they are composed of simple propositions
Premise Indicators
The reasons in an argument
Because, For, Given that, As, Since, As Indicated
Conclusion Indicators
The main claim in an argument.
Therefore, So, It Follows that, Thus, We may conclude that, As a result
What is the common anatomy of arguments?
All arguments are composed of premises and conclusions.
For example, in the argument “Ana is a good candidate because she has relevant experience,” “she has relevant experience” is the premise, and “Ana is a good candidate” is the conclusion.
What is the definition of premise?
The reasons in an argument.
A premise is a proposition that supports a conclusion.
Deductive arguments
(logical structure)
Valid and Sound or unsound
or
Invalid = unsound
Logical Structure
Sound
Unsound
Sound = Good structure and truth
Unsound = is an argument that either is invalid or has at least one false premise.
Inductive Argument
(Assumptive Structure)
Strong, Weak, Cogent, Uncogent
Assumptive
Cogent Argument
Strong and has true premises.
Fallacie
An argument that contains bad reasoning.
Formal Fallacie
(Deductive Reasoning)
Are bad because of their structure. (Deductive reasoning)
Mathematical arguments, logical arguments, arguments from definition
Informal Fallacie
(Inductive reasoning)
Are bad because of their content. (Inductive reasoning)
Analogies, authority, casual inferences, scientific reasoning, extrapolations, etc.
Inference to the best explanation
or
abduction
Arguments where the best available explanation is chosen as the correct explanation.
Can you easily identify bias and sort out facts? What are your guiding questions?
It can be difficult to identify bias and sort out facts at first. To help with this, guiding questions might be, Who wrote this? What website published this? What kind of sources did the writer use? Who funded this?
Can you name a source that calls out when they make mistakes?
A source that calls out when they make mistakes might be local newspapers when they print about past misprints.
How often do you search for sources of funding? Why is that important?
It is important to search for sources of funding because if it is a biased source, like a commercial business, the goal of the post is likely influenced by that and is therefore biased as well.
What are some key phrases that should spark your distrust?
Some key phrases that should spark distrust might be “You won’t hear this anywhere else,” “You can’t trust other sources,” and so on.
What are the implications of and dangers around fake news in general or when viewing a favorite social media site?
Some dangers of fake news might include influencing how people vote. Some implications of fake news might include believing false information and perpetuating it to others.
What was new or a helpful reminder around sources of information?
Some reminders might be to check who hosted the article, check who wrote the article, and look at other parts of the host website.
context collapse,
Danah Boyd came up with this concept
Context collapse means everything on the internet, and particularly on social media, seems to be taking place in [my context] [right now]. However, it could be from years ago or a different state.
What is the purpose of checking the time stamp on information?
Checking the time stamp on information can demonstrate whether it is credible or not. If a headline is claiming that something is happening now, but it was published three years ago, we can probably ignore the article.
Why is it important to compare stories from multiple independent sources?
It is important to compare stories from multiple independent sources because these can confirm that an event really did occur.
What role does common sense play when analyzing information?
Common sense plays the role of helping to determine if something is plausible. When a headline is outlandish, common sense tells us that it is probably not true.
What is a general rule of thumb that applies to analyzing a video that would spark more investigation into its authenticity?
A general rule of thumb to follow when analyzing videos for authenticity is to see if other videos were made of the same event by multiple different, unrelated sources.
Which questions are most appropriate for evaluating the credibility of an information source?
- Who funded it?
- Does it try to get you to distrust other sources?
What are some of the first steps to take in order to check a web article for credibility?
First look at who wrote the article and their credentials. Then look at the host website and check who funds it. Then look to find other articles from different sources making the same claim.
Tell of a time you researched a source to make sure it was credible.
You may have been researching sources for an essay and found a news website with a helpful article. You may have looked to see who the author was, reading their bio if there was one. You may have also have looked into the website itself by clicking their “About” button to see if this news site had a bias.
Which questions can best help readers avoid being misled by fake news?
- Has the story been vetted by independent fact-checkers?
- Are multiple news outlets independently reporting the same story?
If an article is shared on the internet that says “everyone in our city” is doing something, what is an important step to establish the relevance of the article?
Check to see what “our city” refers to
Which piece of information would be the most helpful to know in assessing the credibility of a news story?
Whether the name of the author and the publication are identified
What is one action a person can take to help verify an information source is accurate?
Ask if the source thoughtfully considers the possibility that it can be wrong.
An individual searches for the original source that published a featured headline that came across their social media feed.
What can this individual discover by doing this?
Potential bias
What is an echo chamber?
A social structure in which outside relevant voices have been actively discredited
What is an example of an echo chamber?
A person joins an online community that shares conspiracy theories. They consider anyone who does not agree with the theories or shares contradictory evidence to be brainwashed.
What are two methods to recognize fake news?
- Read beyond the headline
- Consider the source
Why should an individual look at the same news story from different sources?
To safeguard against believing false information
Principle of charity
Before attributing bias to someone, try to interpret their reasoning in the best possible light.
How would you define bias?
A bias is a tendency to believe something more or less than the evidence indicates that you should.
What are common sources of bias?
Bad information sources can be a source of bias. Bad habits of thought can also be a source of bias.
Why is it important to consider the types and sources of personal bias?
Being aware of sources of bias can allow you to change your thinking to reduce their effect on you.
What connection do you see between bias and the principle of charity?
Following the principle of charity can help avoid letting bias influence how we interpret someone’s argument.
Why do you think it is fundamental to understand the principle of charity?
If we follow the principle of charity, we will be thinking about more interesting and better arguments. This will help us to have better-founded beliefs.
Confirmation Bias
The natural tendency to accept evidence supporting our existing beliefs while dismissing evidence that challenges our beliefs.
eg: Because I believe that dark chocolate is healthy, I trust any new research showing its benefits and dismiss studies showing negative impacts on health.
Reflection Questions
- Which news sources do you trust, and why?
- What is your process for exploring political or new topics?
- How do you decide what to believe about a new subject?
- Are you more skeptical of evidence that challenges you beliefs?
Cognitive Bias
Systemic mistakes people make in categorizing and interpreting information we use to make decisions.
Alief
An automatic belief-like attitude that can explain how our instinctual responses can conflict with our reasoned-out beliefs.
eg: You believe that a glass skywalk is safe, but your automatic response is to fear falling through the glass under your feet.
Representativeness Heuristic
A cognitive bias in which we categorize a new situation based on the nearest prototype or experience in our mind.
eg: When someone walks into a bank wearing a ski mask, you search your memory to see what resembles the current situation then decide it is a bank robbery
Anchoring and Adjustment
Our tendency to anchor to the first piece of information we have about a new domain and then “adjust” up or down from there.
eg: Do you think more or fewer than 3 million people live in Wyoming? (You may guess 1 or 4 million, but you probably would not guess 300,000 or 30 million)
Availability Heuristic
A cognative bias in which we use readily availible information while not seeking out and considering unknown information, resulting in jumping to concussions.
eg: While booking a flight you remember a recent dramatic airline accident reported in the news. Suddenly, you think taking a train might be a better option.
Selection Bias
This kind of bias happens when the sample we generalize from is too small or is not representative of the larger target population.
eg: American Idol is not a good survey of what “Americans” think because the only people voting are those who watch the show.
Selective Reporting
This occurs when the same data is reported differently to achieve different rhetorical goals.
eg: “Feeding all the homeless in the US would cost $50 million a year” vs “Feeding al the homeless in the US would cost just .0001% of the Pentagon’s yearly budget”
Thinking Fast and Slow
The right way to respond to bias is to be aware of its influence on our reasoning and take steps to counteract that influence when possible.
eg: Sytem 1 Thinking: is fast, automatic, and emotional (finding the sum of 2+2, or determining a sound is behind you).
System 2 Thinking: is slow, deliberate, and calculating (finding the product of 17x24, or determining how to hit a difficult putt).
Ad Hominem (Attackin the Person)
The ad hominem fallacy is committed when one attacks the person making an argument rather than the argument itself.
eg: Peter Singer’s claim that it is morally wrong to spend money on personal luxuries rather than give charity to obviously false because Singer in a hypocrite who does not practice what he preaches.
Genetic Fallacy
The genetic fallacy is committed when one argues that the origin of an idea is a reason for rejecting (or accepting) the idea.
eg: You only believe in the free market because your father believes in the free market.
Straw Figure
The straw figure fallacy is committed when one misrepresents another’s argument than attacks the misrepresented (weaker) argument rather thatn the actual (stronger) argument.
eg: My opponent opposes the proposed tax levy to pay for the new high school football stadium. It is shameful sh is unwilling to invest in our children’s education.
Red Herring
The red herring fallacy is committed when one introduces an irrelevant topic.
eg: The senator agrees that we need to cut social security benefits to avoid a dangerously high national debt. But every citizen deserves to retire with dignity.
Appeal to Authority
The appeal to authority fallacy is committed when one appeals to an unqualified authority in support of one’s claim.
eg: Alexander Calder was the greatest American sculptor. After all, Albert Einstein thought so.
Appeal to Force
The appeal to force fallacy is committed when one uses a threat to compel agreement.
eg: If you want to keep your job, you will support my position at the board meeting.
Appeal to Popularity
The appeal to popularity fallacy is committed when one appeals to the popularity of a belief as a reason to affirm its truth.
eg: That new smartphone is the best because everyone wants one.
Appeal to Consequences
The appeal to consequences fallacy is committed when one appeals to the bad (or good) consequences of accepting a claim as a reason to reject (or accept) it as true.
e.g., The latest sales projections cannot be accurate because, if they are, the company will go bankrupt. And that is too horrible to believe.
Equivocation
The fallacy of equivocation is committed when one’s argument hinges on mistakenly using the same word in two different senses.
eg: Taking a logical class helps you learn to argue (reason well). But there are too many people who argue (angrily disagree) with each other already.
