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cognition > Reasoning > Flashcards

Reasoning Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two types of reasoning?

A

Inductive and deductive

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2
Q

What is meant by deductive reasoning?

A

Idea- observation-theory
Specific conclusions will follow general theory, people will state general ideas and then verify it in order to reach a specific conclusion.

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3
Q

What is meant by inductive reasoning?

A

Observation - analysis - theory
This is when people use/make specific observations and then infer/make more generalised conclusions.

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4
Q

What is a syllogism?

A

This is a form of deductive reasoning where you reach a specific conclusion having examined two premises

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5
Q

What determines the validity of a syllogism?

A

The structure of an argument, the relationship between premises and conclusion.

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6
Q

What quantifiers are involved in a syllogism?

A

all, no, some, some not

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7
Q

What is a valid argument in a syllogism?

A

If you accept the truth of the two premises the conclusion is true

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8
Q

What are the four approaches to understanding performance on reasoning tasks?

A

identifying simplifying strategies
interpretation of terms
process models
effects of framing and experiences

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9
Q

Give an example of a syllogism.

A

a = b
b = c
therefore we can conclude A =C

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10
Q

What is meant by the atmosphere of a premise shaping the conclusion?

A

This is how the quality and quantity of of premises will influence the conclusions made.

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11
Q

What is the quality of a premise?

A

Whether it is affirmative or negative

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12
Q

What is the Quantity of a premise?

A

Whether it is universal or particular

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13
Q

Atmosphere theory is an example of what?

A

A simplifying strategy that people use when confronted with syllogistic reasoning problems

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14
Q

Atmosphere theory suggests that the mood of the premise will influence what?

A

Judgements about what the mood of the conclusion should be

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15
Q

Mood in atmosphere theory refers to whether the statements are what?

A

affirmative/negative and Universal/Particular

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16
Q

All is an example of what type of premise?

A

Affirmative and universal

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17
Q

Begg and Denny (1969) investigated how atmosphere theory affected people’s responses to syllogistic reasoning problems. Outline this study

A

Gave PP’s 64 reasoning problems
- With two premises and four conclusions to choice fro as an a answer
- Only 19 had a valid solution
- Experimenters were focused on the ones that had no solution and how people responded to them

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18
Q

What were the findings of Begg and Denny (1969) study into atmosphere theory?

A

When both premises were positive, 79% of conclusions endorsed were positive
 When at least one premise was negative, 73% of chosen conclusions were negative
 When both premises were universal, 77% of chosen conclusions were universal
 When at least one premise was particular, 90% of chosen conclusions were particular

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19
Q

What do the fings of Begg and Denny go to suggest?

A

That atmosphere will influence how a person answers a syllogism, i.e the quality and quantity of the premise will shape beliefs about the validity of the conclusion.

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20
Q

What does atmosphere theory fail to explain?

A

how people decide whether or not a syllogism has a valid conclusion

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21
Q

People will often make invalid conclusions because they misinterpret the premises in way the experimenter did not intend. What approach is this?

A

focus on the interpretation of the terms

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22
Q

Ceraso and Provitera (1971) investigated what?

A

How misinterpretation of premise will cause invalid conclusions

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23
Q

How do people often misinterpret All A are B?

A

They may assume this applies vice versa and thus all B are A where in actual fact it just means that some but not all

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23
Q

How do people often misinterpret All A are B?

A

They may assume this applies vice versa and thus all B are A where in actual fact it just means that some but not all

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24
Q

How did Ceraso et al. modify the task?

A

People were given clearer and more explicit instructions in the premises which then correctly guided their conclusions.

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25
Q

Whenever I have a block with a hole it is red, but not all red blocks have holes
Whenever I have a block with a hole it is triangular, but not all triangular blocks have holes.
What is the correct answer to this ?

A

Some red blocks are triangular
This is the correct answer given the two premises

26
Q

Experimenters who focused on the interpretation of terms argued the reason for syllogistic reasoning errors was due to what?

A

People don’t properly interpret/apprehended the premises as the author intended.

27
Q

Johnson-Laird created what as a sequence of processing steps for syllogistic reasoning?

A

The mental models framework

28
Q

The mental model suggests that reasoning involves three stages. What are they?

A

Comprehension
Description
Validation

29
Q

How is comprehension involved in reasoning according to the MMF?

A

This is when we use our language and background knowledge to construct a mental model of the state of the world (the scenario) that is implied by the premises.

30
Q

How is Description involved in reasoning according to the MMF?

A

This is when we combine the models implied by the premise into a composite and use this to try and draw conclusions beyond reiterating the premises

31
Q

What is meant by Validation in reasoning according to the MMF?

A

This is when we search for alternative models, if they are all consistent with the conclusion then it can be judged as a valid conclusion.

32
Q

according to the validation step, if a new model contradicts the conclusion we should reject it and do what?

A

Try and construct and alternative model that can be validated.

33
Q

If a reasoner fails to consider all the alternative models the MMA predicts that they are less likely to what?

A

Draw the correct inference

34
Q

Multiple model syllogisms will be easier to solve than what?

A

Single Model Syllogism

35
Q

What is a multiple model syllogism?

A

This is a syllogism that has more than one way of combining the information in the premises

36
Q

Give an example of a multiple model syllogism:

A

No Artists are Bakers
All Bakers are Candlemakers
What follows?
Some candlemakers are not artists.

37
Q

The MMA also describes what happens when there is no valid conclusion. For example:
No Aardvarks are Bigots
No Bigots are Chocolate-lovers
What follows?

A

After having used all three steps there is no valid conclusion that can be reached that is consistent with both premises.

38
Q

The MMA predicts that people with greater working memory will do what?

A

Perform better on the task, i.e reach the correct conclusion

39
Q

Copeland and Radvansky (2004) tested the prediction of the MMA. Outline the study they conducted.

A
  • First they gave PP a working memory span assessment
  • They then gave the PP’s a
  • All cyclists are coffee drinkers;
  • All coffee drinkers are surgeons”
  • And 9 possible conclusions (the 8 combinations of
    the two end terms “Cyclists” and “Surgeons” with the four quantifiers “All”, “None”, “Some”
    and “Some…not”, plus the option “no valid conclusion”).
40
Q

What were the findings of the Copeland and Radvansky (2004) study?

A

People with higher WM were generally more accurate and quicker at solving the reasoning tasks.
- Suggesting it is a resource intensive activity

41
Q

The MMA better predicted the response choice compared to what?

A

Simple heuristics such as atmosphere theory.

42
Q

Problems that have more possible mental models would be solved less accurately because people fail to what?

A

consider all the possible states implied by the premises

43
Q

What is the key issue with the MMA?

A

What determines how the initial model was created?

44
Q

What is meant by considering the role of framing and experience in reasoning?

A

syllogistic reasoning will be influenced by how a person frames the problem and the persons prior experiences.

45
Q

Who investigated the role of framing and experience in reasoning?

A

Evans et al.1984

46
Q

What did the evans et al. 1984 study find will influence the judged validity of both valid and invalid arguments?

A

The plausibility of the argument

47
Q

judgement about an arguments validity will be influenced by what two things?

A
  1. Beliefs about the conclusions themselves
  2. The probability that the conclusions will be true
48
Q

What is the belief bias?

A

This is when judgments about an arguments validity are influenced by beliefs both about the conclusions themselves and also about the probability that these conclusions will be true.

49
Q

How can we explain the belief bias?

A

The selective scrutiny hypotheses

50
Q

What is the selective scrutiny hypotheses?

A

a heuristic approach to reasoning

51
Q

Explain the SSH?

A

Suggests that when reasoning people will firstly evaluate the plausibility of the conclusion
- If it seems reasonable they accept it without actually reasoning about it
- Only If the conclusions is unbelievable that is when we actually scrutinise the logical relationships between premise and conclusion
- Hence the “selectiveness” of scrutiny

52
Q

How is the SSH challenged?

A

It doesn’t always apply. Analysis from Klauer (2000)
- Validity will affect whether or not be accept a believable argument.
- as in people will reject invalid arguments even if they have plausible conclusions

53
Q

What is meant by the misinterpreted necessity hypothesis?

A

This suggests that people don’t know how to respond when a conclusion is possible but not logically necessary.
Thus people might use believability to make their decision.

54
Q

How is the misinterpreted necessity hypothesis challenged?

A

Belief will influence acceptance even when the conclusions are deductively valid, thus it is not limited to indeterminate uncertainty.

55
Q

What two separate effects will belief exert on reasoning?

A

1) It can induce overall bias to accept/reject the conclusions
2) Belief can also shape the reasoning process itself.

56
Q

Who developed a framework that incorporated the idea that belief has two separate effects on reasoning?

A

Klauer et al. 2000

57
Q

rather than belief influencing judgement before reasoning (selective scrutiny) or after reasoning ( misinterpreted necessity) Klauer argued that belief has what?

A

Two separate effects on reasoning

58
Q

What are the basic ideas/levels of Klauers model?

A
  1. People will initially generate one mental model
  2. If the conclusion is believable people will try and create a model that is consistent with this claim
  3. If the conclusion is unbelievable they will try and create a model that refutes the claim
  4. If this attempt to create a desire model fails, the PP will likely be uncertain and thus their reasoning will be swayed by their belief about the base rate probability that the conclusion is valid.
59
Q

Klauers at al.2000 model goes to suggest that people reason with operations that are shaped by what?

A

Prior beliefs and biases

60
Q

What is meant by propositional reasoning?

A

This is reasoning that involves propositions containing conditionals

61
Q

What are common conditionals?

A

If, And, Not and OR

62
Q

What are the two names for a valid type of inference?

A

The modus ponens and Modus Tollens

63
Q

What is meant by the denial of the antecedent?

A

This is when the conditional response is denied

cognition (2 decks)

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